pp08

Practical Research
Planning and Design
Tenth Edition
Paul D. Leedy
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
© 2013, 2010, 2005, 2001, 1997

Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Chapter 8
Descriptive Research
Descriptive Research Designs
• Observation Studies
• Correlational Research
• Developmental Designs
• Survey Research
Leedy & Ormrod

Practical Research: Planning and Design, 10e 8-3
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Observation Studies
• Characteristics:
- might involve humans, animals, plants, nonliving objects
- tends to have a particular prespecified focus
- behavior being studied is quantified in some way
- involves considerable advance planning, meticulous

attention to detail, and a great deal of time
- provides a quantitative alternative to qualitative

approaches, such as ethnographies and grounded theory
studies
Leedy & Ormrod

Maintaining Objectivity in Observation
Studies
• Define the behavior studied precisely and concretely so that it is easily
recognized when it occurs.
• Divide the observation period into small segments and record whether
the behavior does or does not occur in each segment.
• Use a rating scale to evaluate the behavior in terms of specific dimensions.
• Have two or three people rate the same behavior independently, without
knowledge of one another’s ratings.
• Train the raters to use specific criteria when counting or evaluating the
behavior; continue training until consistent ratings are obtained for any
single occurrence of the behavior.
Leedy & Ormrod

Correlational Research
• A correlational study examines the extent to which differences in one

variable or characteristic are related to differences in one or more
other variables or characteristics.
• In correlational studies, researchers gather data about two or more

characteristics for a particular group of people or other appropriate
units of study in order to determine whether and in what way these
characteristics might be interrelated.
• Correlational data is plotted on a scatter plot.
• Correlation does not, in and of itself, indicate causation.
Leedy & Ormrod

Developmental Designs
• Two Developmental Designs:
1. Cross-sectional study: people from several different age

groups are sampled and compared.
2. Longitudinal study: a single group of people is followed

over time, and data related to the characteristics under
investigation are collected at various times.
Leedy & Ormrod

Cross-Sectional vs Developmental Studies
• Cross-sectional studies are easier to conduct because all of the data can
be collected at one time. In a longitudinal study, data is collected over
a period of months or years and participants may drop out.
• In a longitudinal design, when people respond repeatedly to the same

measurement instrument, the characteristic being measured may
change because of their practice with the instrument.
• In a cross-sectional design, different age groups may represent different

life experiences. This poses a threat to internal validity.
• In a cross-sectional design, correlations between characteristics at

different age levels can’t be computed.
Leedy & Ormrod

The Cohort-Sequential Developmental
Design
• Addresses some of the weaknesses of longitudinal and cross-sectional
designs.
• The researcher begins with two or more age groups (the cross-sectional
piece) and follows each age group over a period of time (the
longitudinal piece).
• Like a longitudinal study, the cohort-sequential study allows calculation

of correlations between measures taken at two different time periods;
therefore, predictions can be made across time.
Leedy & Ormrod

Survey Research
• Involves acquiring information about one or more groups of people —
about their characteristics, opinions, attitudes, etc. – by asking them
questions and tabulating the answers.
• Goal is to learn about a large population by surveying a sample of that

population.
• Also called a descriptive survey or normative survey.
• Simple design – the researcher poses a series of questions, quantifies

the responses, and draws inferences about a particular population
from the responses of the sample.
• Captures a fleeting moment of time; by drawing conclusions from the

transitory collection of data, extrapolation can be made about state
of affairs over a longer period of time.
• Relies on self-report data.

Leedy & Ormrod
Types of Survey Research
• face-to-face interview
• telephone interview
• written questionnaire
• the Internet
Leedy & Ormrod

Forms of Interview
 Structured - the researcher asks a
standard set of questions and nothing
more;
 Semistructured - the researcher may
follow the standard questions with one
or more individually tailored questions
to get clarification or probe a person’s
reasoning.
Leedy & Ormrod

The Face-to-Face Interview
• Structured or semistructured
• Enables the researcher to establish rapport with

participants
• Yields the highest response rates in survey research
• Time and expense involved may be prohibitive
Leedy & Ormrod

Telephone Interviews
• Structured
• Less expensive and time-consuming than face-to-face

interviews
• Accessible participants
• Response rate lower than for face-to-face interviews but

higher than for mailed questionnaires
Leedy & Ormrod

Paper-and-Pencil Questionnaires
• Can be sent out to large groups of people over a large
geographical area
• Participants can respond to questions with assurance of

remaining anonymous and thus may be more truthful
than in face-to-face or telephone interviews
• Have a low return rate
• Often make use of checklists and rating scales
Leedy & Ormrod

Using Checklists and Rating Scales
• Checklist: a list of behaviors, characteristics,

or other entities under investigation.
• Rating Scale: used when a behavior, attitude, or

other phenomenon of interest needs to be
evaluated on a continuum (“never” to “always”)
- Likert Scale
Leedy & Ormrod

Guidelines:
Conducting Interviews in a Quantitative Study
1. Identify questions in advance.
2. Consider how participants’ cultural backgrounds may influence responses.
3. Make sure interviewees are representative of the group.
4. Find a suitable location.
5. Get written permission.
6. Establish and maintain rapport.
7. Focus on the actual rather than on the abstract/hypothetical.
8. Don’t put words in people’s mouths.
9. Record responses verbatim.
Leedy & Ormrod

Guidelines:
Conducting Interviews in a Quantitative Study
(con’t)
10. Keep your reactions to yourself.
11. Remember you’re not necessarily getting the facts.
12. As you write questions, think about how to quantify responses.
13. Consider asking questions that will elicit qualitative information.
14. Pilot-test the questions.
15. Restrict each question to a single idea.
16. Save controversial questions for the latter part of the interview.
17. Seek clarifying information when necessary.
Leedy & Ormrod

Steps of effective interview
1. Set up the interview well in advance.
2. Send the agenda of questions to ask the interviewee.
3. Ask for permission to tape the conference.
4. Confirm the date immediately in writing.
5. Send a reminder, together with another copy of the
questions, 10 days before the interview.
6. Be prompt; follow the agenda; offer a copy of the
questions in case the original copy has been mislaid.
7. After the interview, submit a transcript of the interview,
and get from the interviewee either a written
acknowledgment of its accuracy or a corrected copy.
8. After incorporating the material into a semi-final draft of
the research report, send that section of the report to the
interviewee for final approval and written permission to
use the data in the report.
Leedy & Ormrod
Guidelines: Constructing a Questionnaire
1. Keep it short.
2. Keep the respondent’s task simple.
3. Provide clear instructions.
4. Use simple, clear, unambiguous language.
5. Give a rationale for any item for which the purpose is unclear.
6. Check for unwarranted assumptions implicit in the question.
Leedy & Ormrod

Guidelines: Constructing a Questionnaire (con’t)
7. Word questions in ways that don’t give clues about preferred or

more desirable responses.
8. Determine in advance how you will code the responses.
9. Check for consistency.
10. Conduct one or more pilot tests to determine the validity of your
questionnaire.
11. Scrutinize the almost-final product one more time to make sure it
addresses your needs.
12. Make the questionnaire attractive and professional looking.
Leedy & Ormrod

Guidelines: Maximizing the Return Rate
for a Mailed Questionnaire
1. Consider the timing.
2. Make a good first impression.
3. Motivate potential respondents.
4. Include a self-addressed, stamped

envelope.
5. Offer the results of your study.
6. Be gently persistent.
Leedy & Ormrod
Practical Application:
Computerizing Data Collection in Descriptive Research
1. Directly enter data as an observation is made.
2. Use the computer as a tape recorder.
3. Look for peripheral devices that can aid data collection.
4. Administer a questionnaire on a computer.
5. Use the computer to monitor the quality of the data being collected.
Leedy & Ormrod

Sampling Designs in a Descriptive Study
• Probability Sampling: the researcher specifies in

advance that each segment of the population is
represented in the sample.
• Nonprobability Sampling: the researcher has no

way of forecasting or guaranteeing that each
element of the population will be represented
in the sample. Some members of the population
have little or no chance of being sampled.
Leedy & Ormrod

Probability Sampling
• Random selection: choosing a sample in such a

way that each member of the population has an
equal chance of being selected; assumes that the
characteristics of the sample approximate the
characteristics of the total population.
Leedy & Ormrod

Probability Sampling Techniques
▪ simple random sampling: least sophisticated of all sampling
designs; sample is chosen by simple random selection.
▪ stratified random sampling: the researcher samples equally from

each one of the layers in an overall population.
▪ proportional stratified sampling: the researcher samples proportionally

from each one of the layers in an overall population.
▪ cluster sampling: occurs when the population of interest is spread out

over a large area; the large area is subdivided into smaller units;
a subset of identified clusters is randomly selected.
▪ systematic sampling: involves selecting individuals according to a

predetermined sequence, which must originate by chance.
Leedy & Ormrod

Nonprobability Sampling Techniques
• Convenience sampling: also known as accidental sampling;

takes samples that are readily available; appropriate for
less demanding research problems.
• Quota sampling: a variation of convenience sampling;

selects participants in the same proportion that they are
found in the general population, but not in a random
fashion.
• Purposive sampling: participants are chosen for a particular

purpose; the researcher must always provide a rationale
explaining the selection of a particular sample.
Leedy & Ormrod

Choosing an Appropriate Sample Size
• The larger the sample, the better.
• For smaller populations (N=100 or fewer), survey the entire

population.
• If population is around 500, sample 50%.
• If population is around 1,500, sample 20%.
• If population is over 5,000, a sample size of 400 is fine.
• The larger the population, the smaller the percentage

needed for a representative sample.
Leedy & Ormrod

Sampling Bias
• Bias: any influence, condition, or set of conditions that
singly or in combination distort the data.
• Sampling Bias: any influence that may disturb the

randomness by which the choice of a sample population
has been selected.
• Strategies for identifying sampling bias:

- Scrutinize the questionnaire for items that may be influenced by factors that
distinguish respondents from nonrespondents.
- Compare responses that were returned quickly with those that were returned
later (may reflect the kinds of responses that nonrespondents would have given.
- Randomly select a small number of nonrespondents and match their answers
against those of respondents.
Leedy & Ormrod

Some Final Suggestions
• Questions related to your research project:
▪ Why is a description of this population and/or phenomenon valuable?
▪ What specific data will I need to solve the research problem and subproblems?
▪ What procedures do I need to get the information? How should I implement the
procedures?
▪ How do I get a sample that is truly reflective of the entire population about which
I am concerned?
▪ How can I collect my data in a way that ensures no misrepresentations or

misunderstandings?
▪ How do I control for possible bias in the collection and description of data?
▪ What do I do with the data once I have collected them? How do I organize them
and prepare them for analysis?
Leedy & Ormrod

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Practical Research

Planning and Design

© 2013, 2010, 2005, 2001, 1997

Leedy & Ormrod

- might involve humans, animals, plants, nonliving objects

- tends to have a particular prespecified focus

- behavior being studied is quantified in some way

- involves considerable advance planning, meticulous

- provides a quantitative alternative to qualitative

Leedy & Ormrod

• Use a rating scale to evaluate the behavior in terms of specific dimensions.

Leedy & Ormrod

• A correlational study examines the extent to which differences in one

• In correlational studies, researchers gather data about two or more

• Correlational data is plotted on a scatter plot.

• Correlation does not, in and of itself, indicate causation.

Leedy & Ormrod

• Two Developmental Designs:

1. Cross-sectional study: people from several different age

2. Longitudinal study: a single group of people is followed

Leedy & Ormrod

• In a longitudinal design, when people respond repeatedly to the same

• In a cross-sectional design, different age groups may represent different

• In a cross-sectional design, correlations between characteristics at

Leedy & Ormrod

• Like a longitudinal study, the cohort-sequential study allows calculation

Leedy & Ormrod

• Goal is to learn about a large population by surveying a sample of that

• Also called a descriptive survey or normative survey.

• Simple design – the researcher poses a series of questions, quantifies

• Captures a fleeting moment of time; by drawing conclusions from the

• Relies on self-report data.

Leedy & Ormrod

Leedy & Ormrod

• Enables the researcher to establish rapport with

• Yields the highest response rates in survey research

• Time and expense involved may be prohibitive

Leedy & Ormrod

• Less expensive and time-consuming than face-to-face

• Response rate lower than for face-to-face interviews but

Leedy & Ormrod

• Participants can respond to questions with assurance of

• Have a low return rate

• Often make use of checklists and rating scales

Leedy & Ormrod

• Checklist: a list of behaviors, characteristics,

• Rating Scale: used when a behavior, attitude, or

Leedy & Ormrod

2. Consider how participants’ cultural backgrounds may influence responses.

3. Make sure interviewees are representative of the group.

4. Find a suitable location.

5. Get written permission.

6. Establish and maintain rapport.

7. Focus on the actual rather than on the abstract/hypothetical.

8. Don’t put words in people’s mouths.

9. Record responses verbatim.

Leedy & Ormrod

11. Remember you’re not necessarily getting the facts.

12. As you write questions, think about how to quantify responses.

13. Consider asking questions that will elicit qualitative information.

14. Pilot-test the questions.

15. Restrict each question to a single idea.