Chapter two

Methods of data collection and presentation

 Methods of data collection

 In order to generate valid conclusion from a data, information

has to be collected in a systematic manner
 Hence, data should be collected systematically

Sources of data
 Depending on the source, data can be classified as
Primary or Secondary data.
1. Primary Data
 Data measured or collect by the investigator or the user
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 data is gathered for the first time by the researcher for a given
purpose
2. Secondary Data
 Are second hand information which are already collected by someone
(organization) for some purpose and are available for the present study
 Gathered/compiled from published and unpublished sources
 Usually secondary data is obtained from book, census reports,
survey reports, official records

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 METHODS OF DATA PRESNTATION
 Having collected and edited the data, the next important step is to
organize it
 That is to present it in a readily comprehensible condensed form that
aids in order to draw inferences from it
 The process of arranging data in to classes or categories according to
similarities technically is called classification
 Classification is a preliminary and it prepares the ground for proper
presentation of data.
 Mainly, the purpose of classification is to divide the data into
homogeneous groups or class
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 TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION

1. One-way classification: If we classify observed data based on single

characteristic

Example: the population of world may be classified by religion as Muslim,

Christian etc.

2. Two-way classification: If classify observed data based on two

characteristics at a time

Example: the population of world may be classified by Religion and Sex

3. Multi-way classification: If we classify observed data based on more

than two characteristics at a time

Example: the population of world may be classified by Religion, Sex and

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Literacy
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 The presentation of data is broadly classified in to two categories:

1. Tabular presentation
2. Diagrammatic and Graphic presentation
 Frequency Distribution: is a tabular arrangement of raw data into

classes according to the size or magnitude along with corresponding

class frequencies (the number of values fall in each class)
 It is the organization of raw data in table form with classes and frequencies,
where:
o Raw Data is data collected in original form
o Frequency is the number of times a certain value of class occurs
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The reasons for constructing a frequency distribution are:
1. To organize the data in a meaningful, intelligible way
2. To enable the reader to determine the nature or shape of the distribution.
3. To facilitate computational procedures for measures of average and
spread.
4. To enable the researcher to draw charts and graphs for the presentation
of data
 There are three basic types of frequency distributions

– Categorical frequency distribution

– Ungrouped frequency distribution

– Grouped frequency distributionSet by A.A 6

 Categorical frequency Distribution

 Use for data that can be place in specific categories such as

nominal or ordinal
Example: a social worker collected the following data on marital status
for 25 persons. (M=married, S=single, W=widowed, D=divorced)

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.

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.

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Un grouped frequency distribution
.

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 Grouped frequency Distribution
.

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Class width

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 Diagrammatic and Graphic presentation of data
 These are techniques for presenting data in visual displays using
geometric and pictures
Importance: -
• They have greater attraction.
• They facilitate comparison.
• They are easily understandable.
Diagrammatic presentation of data
o Diagrams are appropriate for presenting discrete as well as
qualitative data.

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 The three most commonly used diagrammatic presentation for
discrete as well as qualitative data are Pie charts, Pictogram & Bar
chart
Pie chart
 A Pie Chart is a circular chart divided into sectors, illustrating relative
magnitudes or frequencies of classes of a given variable.
 Pie chart usually represents categorical data but it is also possible to
use it for discrete quantitative data.
 The angle of each sector has to be proportional to the relative
frequency of a given class, which is
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Pictogram
 Data are presented with the help of pictures
 Such a presentation is known as pictorial diagram or pictogram
 Here the magnitudes of quantities of the variable are explained
with the help of pictures which depict the variable
approximately
 In a pictogram, each symbol in the picture represents a fixed
quantity of the variable
Bar Charts
 A set of bars (thick lines or narrow rectangles) representing
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 Simple Bar Chart
 Are used to display data of one categorical variable
 They are thick lines (narrow rectangles) having the same breadth.
 The magnitude of a quantity is represented by the height /length of the bar
Example: The following data represent sale by product, 1957- 1959 of a given
company for three products A, B, C.

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 Component Bar chart

 When there is a desire to show how a total (or aggregate) is

divided in to its component parts, we use component bar chart.
 The bars represent total value of a variable with each total
broken in to its component parts and different paints or designs
are used for identifications
Example: Draw a component bar chart to represent the sales by
product from 1957 to 1959.
Solutions:

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 Multiple Bar charts

 These are used to display data on more than one variable.

 They are used for comparing different variables at the same
time.
Example: Draw a component bar chart to represent the sales by
product from 1957 to 1959.
Solution

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 Graphical Presentation of data
 The histogram, frequency polygon and cumulative frequency
graph or Ogive is most commonly applied graphical
representation for continuous data.
Procedures for constructing statistical graphs
•Draw and label the X and Y axes.
•Choose a suitable scale for the frequencies or cumulative
frequencies and label it on the Y axes.
•Represent the class boundaries for the histogram or Ogive or the
mid points for the frequency polygon on the X axes.
•Plot the points.
•Draw the bars or lines to connect the points.
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 Histogram

 A graph which displays the data by using vertical bars of

various heights to represent frequencies.
 Class boundaries are placed along the horizontal axes.
 Class marks and class limits are some times placed on as the X axes.

 Unlike Bar graph, in the case of Histogram the categories (bars)

must be adjacent
Example: the following table summarizes the management mid exam score of
38 students out of 35 marks.

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 Cont’d
 If we want to draw Histogram for this data it would be like this:

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 Frequency Polygon
 Frequency Polygon depicts a frequency distribution for discrete or
continuous numeric data.
 Frequency polygons are a graphical device for understanding the
shapes of distributions.
 A Histogram can easily be changed to Frequency Polygon by joining
the mid points of the top of the adjacent rectangles of the Histogram
with a line.
 It is also possible to draw Frequency Polygon without drawing
Histogram.
Example: the following Frequency Distribution represents the ages (in
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 Ogive (cumulative frequency polygon)

 A graph showing the cumulative frequency (less than or more

than type) plotted against upper or lower class boundaries
respectively.
 That is class boundaries are plotted along the horizontal axis
and the corresponding cumulative frequencies are plotted along
the vertical axis.
 The points are joined by a free hand curve.
 Example: Draw an Ogive curve(less than type) for the data
given below.

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 Cont’d
Class Class
Limit F boundary LCB UCB
3-7 3 2.5-7.5 2.5 7.5
8-12 4 7.5-12.5 7.5 12.5
13-17 6 12.5-17.5 12.5 17.5
18-22 13 17.5-22.5 17.5 22.5
23-27 17 22.5-27.5 22.5 27.5
28-32 6 27.5-32.5 27.5 32.5
33-37 1 32.5-37.5 32.5 37.5

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