Guided Propagation Along

the Optical Fiber

 The Optical Fiber
• Fiber optic cable functions as a ”light
guide,” guiding the light from one end to the
other end.
• Categories based on propagation:
– Single Mode Fiber (SMF)
– Multimode Fiber (MMF)
• Categories based on refractive index profile
– Step Index Fiber (SIF)
– Graded Index Fiber (GIF)
 Step Index Fiber
n1 n2

n1>n2

• Core and Cladding are glass with appropriate

optical properties
• Buffer is plastic for mechanical protection
 Step Index Fiber
y y

Cladding


Core r z Fiber axis

n
n2 n1

The step index optical fiber. The central region, the core, has greater refractive
index than the outer region, the cladding. The fiber has cylindrical symmetry. We
use the coordinates r, , z to represent any point in the fiber. Cladding is
normally much thicker than shown.

© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

 Single Mode Step Index Fiber
r
Buffer tube: d = 1mm

Protective polymerinc coating

Cladding: d = 125 - 150 m
n
n1 Core: d = 8 - 10 m
n2

Only one propagation

The cross mode issingle-mode
section of a typical allowed in afiber
given wavelength.
with a tight buffer
tube. is(dachieved
This = diameter) by very small core diameter (8-10 µm)
SMF
© 1999 offers highest
S.O. Kasap, bit rate,
Optoelectronics most
(Prentice widely used in telecom
Hall)
Ray description of different fibers
 Refraction and Reflection

When Φ2 = 90,

Φ1 = Φc is the

Snell’s Law: n1 Sin Φ1 = n2 Sin Φ2 Critical Angle

Φc=Sin-1(n2/n1 )
Step Index Multimode Fiber

n n
2 2
n2
 1
2
 12
2n1 n1
 Step Index Multimode Fiber
• Guided light propagation can be explained by
ray optics
• When the incident angle is smaller the
acceptance angle, light will propagate via TIR
• Large number of modes possible
• Each mode travels at a different velocity
Modal Dispersion
• Used in short links, mostly with LED sources
 Graded Index Multimode Fiber
• Core refractive index gradually changes
towards the cladding
• The light ray gradually bends and the TIR
happens at different points
• The rays that travel longer distance also
travel faster
• Offer less modal dispersion compared to
Step Index MMF
 Step and Graded Index Fibers
n2
n1
3 (a) Multimode step
2 index fiber. Ray paths
1 n are different so that
O
rays arrive at different
times.

n2
(b) Graded index fiber.
3 Ray paths are different
2 but so are the velocities
O 1 n along the paths so that
O' O'' 2 n1 all the rays arrive at the
3
same time.

n2
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Total Internal Reflection
(a) TIR (b) TIR

n decreases step by step from one layer Continuous decrease inn gives a ray
to next upper layer; very thin layers. path changing continuously.

(a) A ray in thinly stratifed medium becomes refracted as it passes from one
layer to the next upper layer with lower n and eventually its angle satisfies TIR.
(b) In a medium where n decreases continuously the path of the ray bends
continuously.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Skew Rays
Along the fiber
1 3 1, 3
Meridional ray
(a) A meridional
ray always
Fiber axis crosses the fiber
axis.

2 2

1 (b) A skew ray

2 1 does not have
Skew ray 2
Fiber axis
to cross the
5
3
fiber axis. It
5 zigzags around
3 4
4 the fiber axis.

Ray path along the fiber Ray path projected

on to a plane normal
to fiber axis
Illustration of the difference between a meridional ray and a skew ray.
Skew Numbers
rays circulate
represent around
reflectionsthe core
of the ray.and increase the dispersion

© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

 How to eliminate modal
dispersion?
• Single Mode Fiber
• How do we know a fiber is SM?
 Single Mode Fiber
• Only one electromagnetic mode is allowed
to propagate  No modal dispersion
• Most widely used in long haul high speed
links
• For single mode condition, the V-Number
(Normalized Frequency) < Cut-off V
2a ( NA)
V  Vc

 b
1
LP01
0.8
LP11
0.6
LP21
0.4
LP 02
0.2

0 V
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
2.405

Normalized propagation constant b vs. V-number

for a step index fiber for various LP modes.
The propagation constant of a
sinusoidal electromagnetic wave is a
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall) measure of the change undergone by
the amplitude and phase of the wave
as it propagates in a given direction.
 Field Distribution
y
in the SMF
Field of evanescent wave
(exponential decay)

n2

Field of guided w ave E(y,z,t ) = E(y)cos(t – 0z)

E(y) Light

m=0 n1
n2

The electric field pattern of the lowest mode traveling wave along the
guide. This mode has m = 0 and the lowest . It is often referred to as the
glazing incidence ray. It has the highest phase velocity along the guide.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Mode-field
Diameter (2W0)

In a Single Mode Fiber,

E (r )  E0 exp( r 2 / w02 )

At r = wo, E(Wo)=Eo/e

Typically Wo > a
 Cladding Power Vs
The mode of
electromagnetic
Normalized Frequency
radiation
describes the
field pattern of
the propagating
waves. ... Plane
waves, waves in
which the electric
and magnetic
fields are both
orthogonal to the
direction of travel
of the wave.

Modes

Vc = 2.4
 Power in the cladding

Lower order modes have higher power in the

cladding  larger MFD
 Higher the Wavelength 
More the
y
Evanescent
y
Field
Cladding

1 > c 2 > 1

v g1 Core v g2 > v g1

 1 <  cut-off 2 < 1

Cladding
E(y)

The electric field of TE0 mode extends more into the

cladding as the wavelength increases. As more of the field
is carried by the cladding, the group velocity increases.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Light Intensity
(a) The electric field (b) The intensity in (c) The intensity (d) The intensity
of the fundamental the fundamental in LP11 in LP21
mode mode LP01

Core

E
Cladding

E01
The electric field distribution of the fundamental mod
in the transverse plane to the fiber axis z. The light
intensity is greatest at the center of the fiber. Intensity
r patterns in LP01, LP11 and LP21 modes.

© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

Fiber Key Parameters
Fiber Key Parameters
Cut-off wavelength
Effects of Dispersion and Attenuation
 Dispersion for Digital Signals
Fiber

Digital signal
Emitter Photodetector
Information Information
t Input Output
Input Intensity Output Intensity
² 
Very short
light pulses t t
0 T 0
~2² 

An optical fiber link for transmitting digital information and the effect of
dispersion in the fiber on the output pulses.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Modal Dispersion
High order mode Low order mode

Broadened
Cladding light pulse
Light pulse

Intensity Core
Intensity

Axial
Spread, 

t t
0

Schematic illustration of light propagation in a slab dielectric waveguide. Light pulse

entering the waveguide breaks up into various modes which then propagate at different
group velocities down the guide. At the end of the guide, the modes combine to
constitute the output light pulse which is broader than the input light pulse.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Major Dispersions in Fiber
• Modal Dispersion: Different modes travel at
different velocities, exist only in multimode
fibers
• This was the major problem in first
generation systems
• Modal dispersion was alleviated with single
mode fiber
– Still the problem was not fully solved
 Dispersion in SMF
Single mode fibers have predominantly Group
Velocity (Chromatic) Dispersion
GVD = Material Disp. + Waveguide Dispersion

Material Dispersion happens because different

wavelengths travel at different velocities since n is
a function of wavelength. Material dispersion exists
in both multimode and single mode fibers.
Waveguide Dispersion happens because signal in the
cladding travels at a different velocity than the
signal in the core. This phenomenon is significant
in single mode conditions.
 Group Velocity Dispersion
Input Cladding
v g ( 1 )
Core Output
Emitter v g ( 2 )
Very short
light pulse

Intensity Intensity Intensity

Spectrum, ² 
Spread, ² 

 t t
1 o 2 0 

All excitation sources are inherently non-monochromatic and emit within a

spectrum, ² , of wavelengths. Waves in the guide with different free space
wavelengths travel at different group velocities due to the wavelength dependence
of n1. The waves arrive at the end of the fiber at different times and hence result in
a broadened output pulse.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
GVD
 GVD = MD + WGD
Dispersion coefficient (ps km -1 nm-1 )
30

20 Dm

10
Dm + Dw
0
Dw
-10 0

-20
Zero Dispersion Wavelength
-30
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
 (m)

Material dispersion coefficient (Dm) for the core material (taken as

SiO2 ), waveguide dispersion coefficient (Dw ) (a = 4.2 m) and the
total or chromatic dispersion coefficient Dch (= Dm + Dw ) as a
function of free space wavelength,  
 Modifying GVD
GVD = Material disp. + Waveguide dispersion
• Material dispersion depends on the material
properties and difficult to alter
• Waveguide dispersion can be altered by
changing the fiber refractive index profile
– 1300 nm optimized
– Dispersion Shifting (to 1550 nm)
– Dispersion Flattening (from 1300 to 1550 nm)
• GVD is also called ‘Chromatic Dispersion’
 Modifying the WGD to shift the zero dispersion
wavelength  Dispersion Shifted Fiber
Dispersion coefficient (ps km-1 nm-1)
20
Dm

10 SiO2-13.5%GeO2

0
Dw a (m)
4.0
3.5
–10 3.0
2.5

–20
1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
 (m)
Material and waveguide dispersion coefficients in an
optical fiber with a core SiO2-13.5%GeO2 for a = 2.5
to 4 m.
 Modifying the WGD to flatten GVD 
Dispersion Flattened Fiber
Dispersion coefficient (ps km -1 nm-1)
30 n

20
r
Dm
10

0
1 2
-10 Dch = D m + Dw

-20 Dw Thin layer of cladding

with a depressed index
-30
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7
 (m)

Dispersion flattened fiber example. The material dispersion coefficient ( Dm) for the
core material and waveguide dispersion coefficient ( Dw ) for the doubly clad fiber
result in a flattened small chromatic dispersion between 1 and  2.
Dispersion Shifting/Flattening
 Polarization Mode Dispersion

Two polarization states exist in the fundamental mode

in a single mode fiber
Differently polarized light may travel at slightly
different velocity resulting in PMD
Usually small
Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)

Each polarization state

has a different
velocity  PMD
 Total Dispersion

For Multi Mode Fibers:

For Single Mode Fibers:

Group Velocity Dispersion

Disp. & Attenuation Summary
 Electrical signal (photocurrent)

Fiber 1
0.707

Sinusoidal signal f
1 kHz 1 MHz 1 GHz
Emitter Photodetector f el
t Sinusoidal electrical signal
Optical Optical
f = Modulation frequency Input Output
Pi = Input light power Po = Output light power Po / Pi
0.1
0.05
t t f
0 0 1 kHz 1 MHz 1 GHz
f op
An optical fiber link for transmitting analog signals and the effect of dispersion in the
fiber on the bandwidth, fop.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
Fiber Optic Link is a Low Pass Filter
for Analog Signals
 Attenuation in Fiber
Attenuation Coefficient P (0)dB  P ( z )dB
 dB/km
z
• Silica has lowest attenuation at 1550 nm
• Water molecules resonate and give high
attenuation around 1400 nm in standard fibers
• Attenuation happens because:
– Absorption (extrinsic and intrinsic)
– Scattering losses (Rayleigh, Raman and Brillouin…)
– Bending losses (macro and micro bending)
 All Wave Fiber for DWDM

Lowest attenuation occurs at

1550 nm for Silica

dense wavelength division

multiplexing (DWDM)
 Bending Loss
Field distribution Microbending
Escaping wave
Cladding

Core
  
c 

Sharp bends change the local waveguide geometry that can lead to waves
escaping. The zigzagging ray suddenly finds itself with an incidence
angle  that gives rise to either a transmitted wave, or to a greater
cladding penetration; the field reaches the outside medium and some light
energy is lost.