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Chapter 4
Forces between
Particles
© 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.

Learning Objectives
• Draw correct Lewis structures for atoms of representative
elements
• Use electronic configurations to determine the number of
electrons gained or lost by atoms as they achieve noble gas
electronic configurations
• Use the octet rule to correctly predict the ions formed during
the formation of ionic compounds, and write correct formulas
for binary ionic compounds containing a representative metal
and a representative nonmetal
• Correctly name binary ionic compounds
• Determine formula weights for ionic compounds
• Draw correct Lewis structures for covalent molecules
• Draw correct Lewis structures for polyatomic ions

Learning Objectives (continued)
• Use VSEPR theory to predict the shapes of molecules and
polyatomic ions
• Use electronegativities to classify covalent bonds of
molecules, and determine whether covalent molecules are
polar or nonpolar
• Write correct formulas for ionic compounds containing
representative metals and polyatomic ions, and correctly
name binary covalent compounds and compounds containing
polyatomic ions
• Relate melting and boiling points of pure substances to the
strength and type of interparticle forces present in the
substances

Lewis Structures
• Representation of an atom or ion in which the elemental
symbol represents the atomic nucleus and all but the valence-
shell electrons
• Valence-shell electrons are represented by dots arranged
around the elemental symbol

Noble Gas Configurations
• Characterized by two electrons in the valence shell of helium
and eight electrons in the valence-shell electrons for the other
members of the group (Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, and Rn)

Determining Valence-Shell Electrons
• Involves writing an electronic configuration for the atom and
identifying the valence electrons as those with the highest n
value
• Simpler alternative for representative elements
• Referring to the periodic table and noting that the number
of valence-shell electrons in the atoms of an element is the
same as the number of the group in the periodic table to
which the element belongs
• Number of valence electrons is the same as the Roman
numeral group number

Valence Electrons Examples
• Calcium, Ca
• Belongs to group IIA
• Number of valence electrons is 2
• Phosphorus, P
• Belongs to group VA
• Number of valence electrons is 5

Lewis Structure Examples
• Potassium, K, is in group IA, and hence it has one valence
electron
• Lewis structure - K 
• Aluminum, Al, is in group IIIA, and hence it has three valence
electrons
• Lewis structure -

Example 4.2 - Drawing Lewis Structures
• Draw Lewis structures for atoms of the following:
• Element number 4
• Cesium (Cs)
• Accepted procedure is to write the element's symbol and put
a dot for each valence electron in one of four equally spaced
locations around the symbol
• Imagine a square around the symbol
• Each side of the square represents one of the four locations
• Element with four valence electrons would have one dot in
each of the four locations
• Fifth electron would be represented by one additional dot in
one of the locations
• Each location can have a maximum of two dots

Example 4.2 - Solution
• Element number 4 is beryllium
• Belongs to group IIA(2) and thus has two valence-shell
electrons
• Lewis structure - Be

• Cesium is in group IA(1), has one valence-shell electron, and

has the Lewis structure Cs

Example 4.3 - Using Abbreviated Electronic
Configurations
• Represent the following using abbreviated electronic
configurations and Lewis structures:
• K
• Mg

• Potassium (K) contains nineteen electrons, with one of them
classified as a valence electron (the one in the 4s subshell)
• Configuration and Lewis structure are
[Ar]4s and K 
1
• Magnesium (Mg) contains twelve electrons, with two of them

classified as valence electrons (the two in the 3s subshell)
• Configuration and Lewis structure are

[Ne]3s and Mg
2

Join In (1)
• Lewis dot structure for sulfur will contain _____ dots
1. 4
2. 6
3. 8
4. 16

Octet Rule
• Atoms will gain or lose sufficient electrons to achieve an outer
electron arrangement identical to that of a noble gas
• Arrangement usually consists of eight electrons in the
valence shell
• Simple ion: Atom that has acquired a net positive or negative
charge by losing or gaining electrons

Simple Ion Examples
• Magnesium, Mg, has two valence electrons that it loses to
form a simple ion with a +2 electrical charge
• Ion is written as Mg2+
• Oxygen, O, has six valence electrons
• Tends to gain two electrons to form a simple ion with a –2
electrical charge
• Ion is written as O2–

Simple Ion Examples (continued)
• Bromine, Br, has seven valence electrons
• Tends to gain one electron to form a simple ion with a –1
electrical charge
• Ion is written as Br–

Determining Ionic Charges for Representative
Elements
• Representative metals will form ions having the same positive
charge as the number (Roman numeral) of the group to which
they belong
• Representative nonmetals will form ions with a negative
charge equal to 8 minus the number (Roman numeral) of the
group to which they belong
• For example, strontium, Sr, a group IIA metal forms Sr2+ ions
and phosphorus, P, a group VA nonmetal forms P3– ions

Ionic Bond Formation
• Ions with positive charges are attracted to ions with negative
charges
• Attractive force between such ions holds them together
• Ionic bonds form between simple ions when representative
metal atoms lose valence electrons and the electrons are
gained by representative nonmetal atoms
• Both atoms are changed into ions with noble gas
configurations
• Resulting ions are then attracted to each other

Isoelectronic
• Term that literally means same electronic
• Used to describe atoms or ions that have identical electronic
configurations

Example 4.4 - Ions and Noble Gas Configurations
• Show how Na can achieve a noble gas configuration and
become an ion by gaining or losing electrons

• Electronic structure of sodium (Na) is represented below
using an abbreviated configuration and a Lewis structure
[Ne]3s1 and Na 
• First representation makes it obvious that the Ne configuration
with 8 electrons in the valence shell would result if the Na
atom lost the single electron located in the 3s subshell
• Loss is represented by the following equation
Na 
• Notice that the removal of aNa
+
+ negative
single 1e electron from a
–
neutral Na atom leaves the atom with 11 positive protons in

the nucleus and 10 negative electrons
• This gives the atom a net positive charge
• Atom has become a positive ion

Example 4.5 - Losing and Gaining Electrons
• Use the periodic table to predict the number of electrons lost
or gained by atoms of the following elements during ionic
bond formation
• Write an equation to represent the process in each case
• Li
• Any group IIA(2) element, represented by the symbol M

• Lithium (Li), a metal, is in group IA(1); therefore it will lose one
electron per atom:
Li  Li + + 1e –
• Any group IIA(2) metal will lose two electrons; therefore
M  M 2+ + 2e –

Join In (2)
• When an atom gains electrons, it has a _____ charge and is
called a(n) _____
1. negative; anion
2. negative; cation
3. positive; anion
4. positive; cation

Join In (3)
• How many electrons does an atom with the following electron
configuration need to gain in order to achieve a noble gas
electronic configuration?
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
1. 0
2. 1
3. 2
4. 3

Join In (4)
• How many electrons does an atom with the following electron
configuration need to lose in order to achieve a noble gas
electronic configuration?
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
1. 0
2. 1
3. 2
4. 3

Ionic Compounds
• Substances that result when ionic bonds form between
positive and negative ions
• Binary ionic compound: When ionic compounds are formed
by the reaction of only two elements
Cu2O CuO

Figure 4.1 - Reaction of Sodium Metal and
Chlorine Gas

Example 4.6 - Electronic Transfer
Processes
• Represent the electron-transfer process that takes place
when the following pair of elements react ionically
• Determine the formula for the resulting ionic compound
• Mg and F

• Magnesium (Mg) of group IIA(2) will lose two electrons per
atom, whereas fluorine (F) of group VIIA(17) will gain one
electron per atom
• Therefore, it can be written as:
Mg  Mg 2+
+ 2e –
F + 1e –  F –

Example 4.6 - Solution (continued)
• It is apparent that two fluorine atoms will be required to accept
the electrons from one magnesium atom
• From another point of view, two F– ions will be needed to
balance the charge of a single Mg2+ ion
• Both observations lead to the formula MgF2 for the compound
• Note the use of subscripts to indicate the number of ions
involved in the formula
• Subscript 1, on Mg, is understood and never written

Join In (5)
• Watch the chemistry interactive: Properties of ionic
compounds video
• How many electrons did each potassium atom have to lose in
order to form potassium bromide?
1. 0
2. 1
3. 2
4. 3

Join In (6)
• What is the formula for an ionic compound formed between a
calcium ion and a selenide ion?
1. CaSe
2. Ca2Se
3. CaSe2
4. Ca2Se2

Join In (7)
• Watch chemistry interactive: Ion formation for magnesium and
fluorine
• If the ion formed is smaller than the initial atom, which of the
following occurred?
1. Electrons were gained and an anion was formed
2. Electrons were gained and a cation was formed
3. Electrons were lost and an anion was formed
4. Electrons were lost and a cation was formed

Binary Ionic Compound Formulas
• Binary ionic compounds typically form when a metal and a
nonmetal react
• Metal tends to lose one or more electrons and forms a
positive ion
• Nonmetal tends to gain one or more electrons and forms a
negative ion
• Symbol for the metal is given first in the formula
• Formula for a binary ionic compound represents the minimum
number of each ion that will provide equal numbers of positive
and negative electrical charges when combined together

Binary Ionic Compound Formula Examples
• Sodium and fluorine
• Sodium, a group IA metal, will form sodium ions with the
symbol Na+
• Fluorine, a group VIIA nonmetal, will form fluoride ions with
the symbol F–
• Minimum number of ions needed to give the same number of
positive and negative charges is one of each
• One Na+ provides one positive charge and one F – provides
one negative charge
• Correct formula that results is NaF

(continued 1)
• Sodium and sulfur

• Sodium is a group IA metal and will form sodium ions with the
symbol Na+
• Sulfur is a group VIA nonmetal and will form sulfide ions with
the symbol S2─
• Minimum number of ions required to give the same number
of positive and negative charges is two Na + ions and one S2–
ion
• Two Na+ ions provide two positive charges and one S 2– ion
provides two negative charges
• Resulting formula is Na2S

(continued 2)
• Aluminum and oxygen

• Aluminum is a group IIIA metal and will form ions with the
symbol Al3+
• Oxygen is a group VIA nonmetal and will form ions with the
symbol O2–
• Minimum number of ions required to give the same number
of positive and negative charges is two Al 3+ ions and three O2–
ions
• Resulting formulas is Al2O3

Naming Binary Ionic Compounds
• Binary ionic compounds are named using the following
pattern:
• Name = Metal + nonmetal stem + -ide
• Stem of the name of a nonmetal is the name of the nonmetal
with the ending dropped

Naming Binary Ionic Compounds (continued)
• Some metal atoms, especially those of transition and inner-
transition elements, form more than one type of charged ion
• Iron forms both Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions
• Number of positive charges on the metal ion is indicated by a
Roman numeral in parentheses following the metal name
• Compounds FeCl2 and FeCl3 contain iron ions with 2+ and
3+ charges, respectively
• Their names are iron (II) chloride and iron (III) chloride
FeCl2 FeCl3
Examples of Binary Ionic Compound
Names
• Name K2O
• Name = Metal name + Nonmetal stem + -ide
• Name = Potassium + Ox- + -ide = Potassium oxide
• Name Mg3N2
• Name = Magnesium + Nitr- + -ide = Magnesium nitride
• Name BeS
• Name = Beryllium + Sulf- + -ide = Beryllium sulfide
• Name AlBr3
• Name = Aluminum + Brom- + -ide = Aluminum bromide

Example 4.7 - Naming Binary Ionic Compound
• Name the following binary ionic compound
• Ca3N2

• Elements are calcium (Ca) and nitrogen (N), hence the name
calcium nitride

Example 4.8 - Formulas for Ionic Compounds
• Write the formula for ionic compound that would form between
the following simple ions
• Note that the metal forms two different simple ions, and name
each compound two ways
• Cr3+ and S2–

• Charges on the combining ions are 3+ and 2–
• Smallest combining ratio balances the charges in two Cr3+ (a
total of 6+ charge) and three S2– (a total of 6– charge)
• Formula is Cr2S3
• Names are chromium(III) sulfide and chromic sulfide

Join In (8)
• The name for the Na+ ion is:
1. sodium ion
2. sodium (I) ion
3. sodide ion
4. sodious ion

Join In (9)
• What is the systematic name for WO3?
1. Tungsten oxide
2. Tungsten trioxide
3. Tungsten (III) oxide
4. Tungsten (VI) oxide

Ionic Compound Structure
• Stable form of an ionic compound is not a molecule, but a
crystal in which many ions of opposite charge occupy lattice
sites in a rigid three-dimensional arrangement called a crystal
lattice
• Lattice site: Individual location occupied by a particle in a
crystal lattice

Ionic Compound Formulas and Weights
• Formulas for ionic compounds represent only the simplest
combining ratio of the ions in the compounds, not the precise
numbers of atoms of each element found in a crystal lattice
• Formula weight: Sum of the atomic weights of the atoms
shown in the formula of an ionic compound
• Similar to molecular weight
• One mole of an ionic compound contains Avogadro's number
(6.022 x 1023) of the simplest combining ratio of ions in the
compounds

Example 4.9 - Comparing Molecular and Ionic
Compounds
• Carbon dioxide, CO2, is a molecular compound, whereas
magnesium chloride, MgCl2, is an ionic compound
• Molecular weight of CO2 is 44.0 u
• Formula weight of MgCl2 is 95.3 u
• Determine the mass in grams of 1.00 mol of each compound

• 1.00 mol of a molecular compound has a mass in grams
equal to the molecular weight of the compound
• Thus, 1.00 mol CO2 = 44.0 g CO2
• For ionic compounds, 1.00 mol of compound has a mass in
grams equal to the formula weight of the compound
• Thus, 1.00 mol MgCl2 = 95.3 g MgCl2

Join In (10)
• What is the formula weight of Fe3O4?
1. 34.00 u
2. 71.85 u
3. 110.00 u
4. 231.55 u
Cu2O CuO
FeCl 2 FeCl3
Covalent Bond
• Type of bond in which the octet rule is satisfied when atoms
share valence electrons
• Shared electrons are counted in the octet of each atom that
shares them as illustrated below for fluorine, (F2)
• Attractive force that results between two atoms that are both
attracted to a shared pair of electrons

Covalent Bond (continued 1)
• Sharing of electrons takes place when electron-containing
orbitals of atoms overlap
• Example of orbital overlap is shown below for the formation of
an H2 molecule

Covalent Bond (continued 2)
• Electron sharing resulting in covalent bonding can occur
between identical atoms or between different atoms
• Molecules such as Cl2, O2, and N2 are formed when
electron sharing occurs between identical atoms
• Molecules such as H2O and CH4 are formed when electron
sharing occurs between different atoms

Table 4.3 - Examples of Covalent Bonding

Approach to Draw Lewis Structure
• Step 1 - Use the molecular formula to determine how many
atoms of each type are in the molecule
• Step 2 - Use the given connecting pattern of atoms to draw an
initial structure for the molecule, with the atoms arranged
properly
• Step 3 - Determine the total number of valence-shell electrons
contained in the atoms of the molecule
• Step 4
• Put one pair of electrons between each bonded pair of
atoms in the initial structure drawn in step 2
• Subtract the number of electrons used in this step from the
total number determined in step 3

Approach to Draw Lewis Structure (continued)
• Use the remaining electrons to complete the octets of all
other atoms in the structure, beginning with the atoms that
are present in greatest number in the molecule
• Remember, hydrogen atoms require only one pair of
electrons to achieve the electronic configuration of helium
• Step 5
• If all octets cannot be satisfied with the available electrons,
move nonbonding pairs (those that are not between
bonded atoms) to positions between bonded atoms to
complete octets
• This will create double or triple bonds between some
atoms

Example 4.11 - Drawing Lewis Structures
• Draw a Lewis structure for SO3

• Step 1 - Formula indicates that one sulfur (S) and three
oxygen (O) atoms are in the molecule
• Step 2 - Each O atom is bonded only to the S atom
• Thus, the following arrangement is drawn:
O S O
O
• Step 3 - Sulfur and oxygen are both in group VIA (16), and so
each atom has six valence electrons
• Total is 24 (six from the one S atom and 18 from the three
O atoms)

Example 4.11 - Solution (continued 1)
• Step 4 - One pair of electrons is put between each O atom and
the S atom of the arrangement drawn in step 2
• This required six of the 24 available electrons

• Remaining 18 are used to complete the octets of the atoms,
beginning with the O atoms

• Step 5
• It is seen that the octet of sulfur is not completed, even
though all available electrons have been used
• If one nonbonding pair from any of the three O atoms is
moved to a location between the O and the S atoms, it will
help satisfy the octet of both atoms
• Resulting correct Lewis structure contains one double
bond (two shared pairs) between the S and one of the
O atoms

• If a nonbonding pair of electrons from either of the other
two oxygen atoms is used, it results in the following
structures

Join In (11)
• Which of the following is the best Lewis structure for SO3?
1. 2.
3. 4.

Join In (12)
• Which of the following is the best Lewis structure for the nitrite
ion?
1. 2.
3. 4.

Polyatomic Ions
• Covalently bonded groups of atoms that carry a net electrical
charge
• Common polyatomic ions are negatively charged
• Lewis structures can be drawn using the same steps that are
used for covalent molecules with one charge
• In Step 3, the total number of electrons available is
obtained by first determining the total number of valence-
shell electrons contained in the atoms of the ion
• To this number are added electrons representing the
number required to give the negative charge to the ion

Shapes of Molecules and Polyatomic Ions
• Most molecules and polyatomic do not have flat, two-
dimensional shapes but have distinct three-dimensional
shapes
• VSEPR theory
• Valence-shell electron-pair repulsion theory
• Theory based on the mutual repulsion of electron pairs
• Used to predict molecular shapes
• Central atom - Any atom in a molecule or ion that is bonded to
two or more other atoms
• When the VSEPR theory is applied to the valence-shell
electrons of the central atom in a molecule or ion, the shape
of the molecule or ion can be predicted

Rules Followed in VSEPR Theory
• All valence-shell electron pairs around the central atom are
counted equally, regardless of whether they are bonding or
nonbonding pairs
• Double or triple bonds between atoms are treated like a single
pair of electrons when predicting shapes

Electron Pair Arrangements
• Arrangement of electron pairs around the central atom (E)
depends on the number of electron pairs
• Two pairs locate opposite each other
• Three pairs arrange themselves in a flat triangle around
the central atom
• Four pairs become located at the four corners of a
pyramid-like shape called a tetrahedron
• VSEPR theory can be used to predict shapes of molecules
and ions with five or more pairs on the central atom

Example 4.13 - Applications of VSEPR Theory
• Draw Lewis structures for the following molecules, apply the
VESPR theory, and predict the shape of each molecule
• CO2 (each O atom is bonded to the C atom)
• NH3 (each H atom is bonded to the N atom)

• Lewis structure drawn is
• Central atom is carbon (C) and it has two pairs of electrons in
the valence shell surrounding it
• Each double bond counts as a single electron pair and
thus the central atom behaves as if it has two pairs of
electrons around it
• Two pairs will be located on opposite sides of the C atom, so
the molecule has the shape drawn above with the O, C, and
O atoms arranged in a line and the molecule is linear

• Lewis structure is:
• Central atom is nitrogen (N), and it has four electron pairs in

the valence shell
• Four pairs will be located at the corners of a tetrahedron with
the N atom in the middle:

• Shape of the molecule is determined only by the positions of
the atoms, not by the positions of the unshared electron pair
• Thus, the NH3 molecule has the shape of a pyramid with a
triangular base
• The N atom is at the peak of the
pyramid, and an H atom is at each
corner of the base:

Join In (13)
• The VSEPR shape of SO3 is predicted to be:
1. linear
2. bent
3. trigonal planar
4. trigonal pyramidal

Polarity of Molecules and Electronegativity
• Polar covalent bond: Bonding electrons are shared
unequally
• Nonpolar covalent bond: Bonding pair of electrons is shared
equally by the bonded atoms
• Electronegativity: Tendency of an atom to attract shared
electrons of a covalent bond
• Electrons of a covalent bond are attracted toward atoms of
highest electronegativity
• Bond polarization: Result of shared electrons being attracted
to the more electronegative atom of a bonded pair of atoms

Table 4.4 - Electronegativities for the Common
Representative Elements

Polarity of Molecules
• For atoms bonded by a polar covalent bond, the more
electronegative atom acquires a partial negative charge (δ–),
and the less electronegative atom acquires a partial positive
charge (δ+)

Polar and Nonpolar Molecules
• Polar: Molecule containing polarized bonds in which the
resulting charges are distributed nonsymmetrically throughout
the molecule
• Nonpolar: Molecule containing no polarized bonds in which
the resulting charges are distributed symmetrically throughout
the molecule

Table 4.5 - Polarity of Molecules

Example 4.15 - Periodic Table and Properties
• Use only the periodic table to determine the following for the
diatomic covalent molecule, Br—Br:
• More electronegative element
• Direction of the bond polarization
• Charge distribution resulting from the polarization

• Since both bromine (Br) atoms have the same
electronegativity, no bond polarization or unequal charge
distribution results
• Molecule is nonpolar covalent and is represented as Br—Br

Example 4.16 - Classifying Covalent Bonds
• Using Table 4.4, classify the bonds in the following compound
as nonpolar covalent, ionic, or polar covalent:
• CIF

• Electronegativities of chlorine (Cl) and fluorine (F) are 3.0 and
4.0, respectively
• Obtain the ∆EN value by subtracting the smaller from the
larger, regardless of the order of the elements in the
formula
• Thus, ∆EN = 4.0 ─ 3.0 = 1.0

Join In (14)
• SO3 is a _____ molecule that contains _____ bonds
1. polar; polar
2. polar; nonpolar
3. nonpolar; polar
4. nonpolar; nonpolar

Join In (15)
• An ionic bond has a _____ electronegativity difference
between atoms than a covalent bond and commonly involves
_____
1. greater; a metal and a nonmetal
2. greater; two nonmetals
3. lesser; a metal and a nonmetal
4. lesser; two nonmetals

Naming Binary Covalent Compounds
• Similar to naming binary ionic compounds
• Rules
• Give the name of the less electronegative element
• Give the stem of the name of the more electronegative
element and the suffice –ide
• Indicate the number of each type of atom in the molecule
by means of Greek prefixes
• Prefix mono- is not used when it
appears at the beginning of the name

Examples of Naming Binary Covalent
Compounds
• SO2
• Name = Sulfur + di- + ox + -ide = Sulfur dioxide
• XeF6
• Name = Xenon + hexa- + fluor + -ide = Xenon hexafluoride
• H2O
• Name = Di- + hydrogen + mono- + ox + -ide = Dihydrogen
monoxide
• Known as water
• Final o of mono- was dropped for ease of pronunciation

Ionic Compounds Containing Polyatomic
Ions
• Rules for writing formulas and names for ionic compounds
containing polyatomic ions are essentially the same as those
used for writing formulas and names for binary ionic
compounds
• Formula
• Metal is written first, the positive and negative charges
must add up to zero, and parentheses are used around
the polyatomic ion if more than one is used
• Name
• Positive metal ion is given first followed by the name of
the negative polyatomic ion name
Na3PO4 Mg3 PO4 2 NH4 3 PO4

Table 4.7 - Some Common Polyatomic Ions

Examples of Ionic Compounds Containing
Polyatomic Ions
• Compound containing K+ and ClO3–
KClO3
• Compound containing Ca2+ and ClO3–
Ca(ClO3)2
• Compound containing Ca2+ and PO43–
Ca3(PO4)2

Naming Ionic Compounds Containing Polyatomic
Anions
• Names of ionic compounds that contain a polyatomic anion
are obtained using the following pattern:
• Name = Name of metal + Name of polyatomic anion
• Examples
• KClO3 is named potassium chlorate
• Ca(ClO3)2 is named calcium chlorate
• Ca3(PO4)2 is named calcium phosphate
• CaHPO4 is named calcium hydrogen phosphate

Example 4.17 - Naming Binary Covalent
Compounds
• Name the following binary covalent compounds:
• N2O5
• CS2

• N2O5 is assigned the name dinitrogen pentoxide
• The a is dropped from the penta- prefix for oxygen to avoid
the pronunciation problem created by having two vowels
next to each other in a name (dinitrogen pentaoxide)
• CS2 is named carbon disulfide

Example 4.18 - Writing Compound
Formulas and Names
• Write formulas and names for compounds composed of ions
of the following metals and polyatomic ions indicated:
• Na and NO3–
• K and HPO42–

• Sodium (Na) is a group IA(1) metal and forms Na+ ions
• Electrical neutrality requires a combining ratio of one Na+
for one NO3–
• Formula is NaNO3
• Name is given by the metal plus the polyatomic ion name,
sodium nitrate
• Potassium (K) is a group IA(1) metal and forms K+ ions
• Required combining ratio of 2:1 gives the formula K2HPO4
• Name is potassium hydrogen phosphate

Join In (16)
• What is the systematic name for N2O4?
1. Dinitrogen tetroxide
2. Dinitrogen tetroxygen
3. Nitrogen dioxide
4. Nitrogen (IV) oxide

Join In (17)
• What is the chemical formula for lithium sulfate?
1. LiS
2. Li(SO3)2
3. Li2SO4
4. Li3SO6

Join In (18)
• What is the name of (NH4)3PO4?
1. Ammonia phosphide
2. Ammonia phosphate
3. Ammonium phosphide
4. Ammonium phosphate

Interparticle Forces
• Ionic and covalent bonds represent two of the forces that
occur between atomic-sized particles and hold the particles
together to form matter
• Other forces exist that hold the particles of some types of
matter together
• Metallic bonding
• Dipolar forces
• Hydrogen bonding
• Dispersion forces

Table 4.8 - Some Characteristics of Selected
Pure Substances

Interparticle Forces (continued 1)
• Network solids: Solids in which the lattice sites are occupied
by atoms that are covalently bonded to each other
• Example - SiO2 and diamond
• Metallic bond: Attractive force responsible for holding solid
metals together
• Originates from the attraction between positively charged
atomic kernels that occupy lattice sites and mobile
electrons that move freely through the lattice
• Dipolar force: Attractive force that exists between the
positive end of one polar molecule and the negative end of
another

Interparticle Forces (continued 2)
• Hydrogen bonding: Result of attractive dipolar forces
between molecules in which hydrogen atoms are covalently
bonded to very electronegative atoms (O, N, or F)
• Dispersion forces
• Very weak attractive forces acting between the particles of
all matter
• Result from momentary nonsymmetric electron
distributions in molecules or atoms

Table 4.9 - Behavior of Selected Pure
Substances in Response to Heating

Figure 4.12 - Relative Strengths of Interparticle
Forces

Example 4.19 - Behavior of Dispersion
Forces
• Illustrate the behavior of dispersion forces by using the
information in Table 4.11

• Molecules increase in size in the order F2, Cl2, Br2, I2
• Strength of dispersion forces increases in the same order, as
shown in Table 4.11 by the increases in melting and boiling
points

Join In (19)
• Which of the following is the strongest?
1. London dispersion forces
2. Dipole-dipole interactions
3. Hydrogen bonds
4. Covalent bonds

Join In (20)
• Which of the following has the highest melting point?
1. Ar
2. CO2
3. C3H8
4. N2O

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Chapter 4

© 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.

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• Cesium is in group IA(1), has one valence-shell electron, and

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• Magnesium (Mg) contains twelve electrons, with two of them

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© 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.

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neutral Na atom leaves the atom with 11 positive protons in

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• Sodium and sulfur

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• Aluminum and oxygen

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© 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.

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© 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.

© 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.

© 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.