SOIL IMPROVEMENT WITH ULTRA

FINE CEMENT IN WATER STRUCTURES

AND CHEMICAL INJECTION
APPLICATIONS IN TUNNELS
 THE HISTORY OF CEMENT GROUTING

• According to geotechnical historians, Grouting was first used to repair a sluice at Dieppe, France, by Charles
Berigny in 1802. Holes were filled with the liquid grout, and a tow ball was placed on top. A wooden piston
then drove the grout into the foundation.

• In the United States, Worthen grouted the foundations of a flume in 1845, and nine years later had graduated
to sealing a masonry pier on the New Haven Road at Westford.

• W. R. Kinipple, a pioneer in cement grouting, used cement suspension to fill masonry cracks between 1856
and 1858. Kinipple is considered the founder of cement grouting due to the successful outcome of this work.
(Glossop, 1960)

• In 1882 and 1899, Reumaux and Portier used cement grouting to seal water-bearing joints in mines and
seepages, using pump and free hydrostatic pressure respectively.
• Portier sealed a jointed rock during Compagnie de Bethune mine excavation in 1904, using grouted boreholes
and different-colored cement suspensions to indicate grout dispersion.

• In 1911, grouting was viewed skeptically in Great Britain, but Kinder introduced it as a dam foundation
design measure. Lapwood (1911) argued grouting was a last resort, and Gourley (1922) revised this opinion
to reduce costs and delays in dam construction while maintaining tightness and safety.

• The Estacada Dam in Oregon used a grout curtain made from cement suspension in two deep boreholes,
verified through hydraulic tests, and described by H. A. Rands in 1915.

• In 1926, the subsoil of the 24 m high Zelivka Dam was sealed by grouting (Klir).

• The grouting at Hoover Dam between 1932 and 1935 is considered the beginning of systematic design of
rock treatment in the United States (Glossop, 1961).

• Grouting was developed independently in France for dam foundations, and it was used for the first time at the
Chavanon Dam in 1934.
 THE HISTORY OF ULTRA FINE CEMENT

• Ultrafine cement, developed in Japan in the 1970s, was introduced to the US in

1984 as an alternative to chemical solution grouts for fissure-grouting small
rock fractures and permeating fine-grained soils.

• The first major use was for groundwater control grouting at the Helms Pumped
Storage Project. Ultrafine cement products are now widely available
worldwide.
 WHAT IS THE GROUTING?

● Basically, grouting methods can be divided into two main

categories depending on the material used: cement grouting and
chemical grouting.

● Generally, as a result of grouting, the permeability of coarse-

grained soils is reduced and the strength and compression
properties under load of fine-grained soils are improved.
 CEMENT GROUTING

• Basically, Cement grouting is the injection of water-cement material into the ground by mixing in a certain
ratio.

• The materials used in injection are cement, water, sometimes also bentonite, sand and additives.

• The main ingredients of cement are; limestone, clay, gypsum, siliceous sand.

• Usually, the grain size of the cement particles is within 7 ~ 200 μm (0.007 ~ 0.2 mm) (Zhang, 2011)

• Portland cement particles are generally in the range of 1-50 micrometers (μm).
PARTICLE SIZE CHART OF PORTLAND
CEMENT

(Yoon et al., 2015)

 FINE-GRAINED CEMENT

• The Norwegian standard categorizes cements into microfine (D 95 <30 μm) and
ultrafine (D95 <15 μm).

• In the USA, ACI Committee 552 defines fine-grained cements with a

maximum grain size of 15 μm.

• European standard EN 12715: 2000 defines microfine cements with D 95 <20

μm and Blaine fineness > 8000 cm2/gr.

• In Britain, ultrafine cements have a maximum grain diameter of 6 μm.

(Christodoulou et al., 2021)
GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF PORTLAND CEMENT
AND A DIFFERENT TYPES OF ULTRAFINE CEMENT

(Henn, Nathan and Soule, n.d.)

 PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENT CEMENT
TYPES

Typical Units Blue Circle Blue Circle Blue Circle Blue Circle
Particle Size Microcem Microcem Microcem Microcem
Distribution 550 650 650 SR 900
D95 μm 30 20 20 12
D50 μm 8 6 6 3.5
D25 μm 5 3 3 2

BLUE CIRCLE INDUSTRY

Microsem 550 = Fine cement

Microsem 650/SR = Superfine cement
Microsem 900 = Ultrafine cement
 PRICE OF ORDINARY PORTLAND
CEMENT AND ULTRAFINE CEMENT (2009)

(Henn, Nathan and Soule, n.d.)

 THE IMPACT OF GRAIN SIZE OF CEMENT
IN APPLICATIONS

Advantages;
• The finer the cement is ground, the larger the surface to react with water and
therefore the reaction (hydration) takes less time. (Christodoulou et al., 2021)
• Finer cement particles effectively penetrate smaller voids and fissures,
providing better coverage and sealing in intricate or narrow spaces.
• Finer particles facilitate smoother, more consistent grout flow, making it easier
to handle during injection.
• Finer particles offer higher early strength due to increased reactivity.
• Finer cement particles generally have a faster setting time due to increased
surface area and reactivity.
Disadvantages;

• Fine-grained cements generally require more water. This means the grout mix
requires proportionally more water, which can increase costs and labor time.

• Rapid-setting cements may increase the risk of cracking, especially in large

volume injections or when injected at high rates.

• Excessive fine particles can clog injection equipment, disrupt grouting

processes, and require frequent maintenance due to their potential to clog
smaller nozzles or injection systems.
(Christodoulou et al., 2021)
TYPICAL CASES OF USE FOR FINE-
GRAINED CEMENT GROUTS

(Christodoulou et al., 2021)

 CHEMICAL GROUTING

History
• Chemical injection application, a new technology, began in the 1950s with
Jeziorsky's 1886 patent. It involves injecting concentrated sodium silicate and
coagulant into holes.

• During the late 1800s to early 1950s, sodium silicate was the primary substance
used in chemical injections due to its common use.

• In 1978, Mobay Chemical Corporation introduced the first commercial

polyurethane injection in the US, making it the most popular non-silicate
chemical injection in mining and tunneling.
 THE AIM OF THE USE OF CHEMICAL
GROUTING METHODS IN TUNNELS

• To prevent tunnel collapse by strengthening and stabilizing the surrounding soil

and rocks

• To prevent water seepage in the tunnels

• To increase the strength of weak soil and rocks in the geological formation where
the tunnel is located.

• To prevent settlement in tunnels

 WHAT IS THE CHEMICAL GROUTING?

• Chemical injection is a process performed by injecting a mixture

of certain chemicals in controlled amounts and into specific
areas.

• The main chemical injection materials are silicates, resins,

polymers and acrylamides.

• The most commonly used are silicate injections.

 SUITABLE SOILS AND UNSUITABLE SOILS
FOR CHEMICAL GROUTING APPLICATION

1) Suitable Soils
● Sandy, granular soils
Provide better penetration of injected materials and increase chemical injection
effectiveness by controlling water movement within the soil.

2) Unsuitable Soils
● Organic Soils
Organic matter-rich soils are generally unsuitable for chemical injection due to their
potential for absorbing the injected material and causing undesirable reactions.
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Advantages
• Ease of application
• Good control of setting time
• Low viscosity
• Rapid Reaction Time
Disadvantages
High cost
Contains toxic material that may cause environmental pollution
 AN EXAMPLE OF A
CHEMICAL INJECTION
APPLICATION

●Location
Izmir/Turkey

● Problem
Within the scope of the metro project of Izmir
Metropolitan Municipality, groundwater in
Shaft 4 of Güzelyalı station had caused
settlement problems. This situation had posed
a problem for both the tunnel and the
buildings close to the work area.

General stratigraphy and cross section of Shaft 4

Method and Results

• A polyurethane-based chemical injection was used to

prevent groundwater drainage from Shaft 4 and
prevent ground settlements.

• Foam polyureatane was injected into rock bolts and

drainage holes using 60-70 bar pressure.

• The water from shaft 4 was stopped, causing the

water level to decrease and preventing settlement.

• Aksoy, C.O. (2008). Chemical injection application at

tunnel service shaft to prevent ground settlement
induced by groundwater drainage: A case
study. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and
Mining Sciences, [online] 45(3), pp.376–383.
doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2007.06.005.

The ground settlements