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PHILOSOPHY 152: TOPIC 2

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THE FIVE BIG QUESTIONS FACING US AS HUMANS.

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MAIN TOPICS WHICH ARE COVERED IN THIS COURSE

Topic 1: What is Philosophy?

Topic 2: The Big Questions: Metaphysics and Ontology
Topic 3: The Big Questions: Epistemology
Topic 4: The Big Questions: Ethics
Topic 5: The Big Questions: Logic
Topic 6: The Big Questions: Being Human
Glossary:
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EPISTEMOLOGY

Plato's epistemology was an attempt to understand what it was to know, and how
knowledge (unlike mere true opinion) is good for the knower.
The philosophical study of the nature, origin, and limits of human knowledge.
The term is derived from the Greek epistēmē (“knowledge”) and logos (“reason” or
“study”), and accordingly the field is sometimes referred to as the theory of
knowledge.
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QUESTIONING THE WORLD – THIS IS WHERE IT STARTED

The great Aristotle (384–322 BCE) once said that philosophy begins in a kind of
“wonder or puzzlement.” With this comment he refers to the fact that we as
human beings have an inborn curiosity and a need to make sense of the world,
we live in.
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EPISTEMOLOGY

Epistemology raises several important questions such as the following:

• What is knowledge?
• Can we as humans have knowledge?
• What does it mean when we say that we “know” something?
• How do we get or obtain knowledge?
• Is knowledge universal?
• How can we be certain about our knowledge
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THE SUBDIVISIONS OF EPISTEMOLOGY

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SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE

Let us consider some of these sources before we proceed:

1. Authority or Divine Revelation,
2. Life experience
3. Logical reasoning (Rationalism)
4. Observation (scientific method, and Deductive Reasoning)
5. Intuition (personal insight)
6. Social customs and traditions,
7. Social inquiry method.
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RATIONALISM ’

In Western philosophy, rationalism represents the view that regards reason as

the main source and ultimate test of knowledge.
The rationalists, maintains that reality itself has an inherently logical structure, and
that the ‘truth’ can therefore be grasped.
Whilst putting their faith in the ability of the human intellect, they reject the claims of
those who rely on experience or divine revelation as alternative sources of
knowledge.
Philosophers who are generally recognised as being rationalists include Descartes,
Leibniz (1646–1716), and Spinoza (1632–1677). These thinkers agreed that rational
thinking would provide the kind of certainty required by science.
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EMPIRICISM

• Empiricism is a school of thought that argue that knowledge can only be obtained
through direct experiences.
• This implies that knowledge is gained primarily or mainly through the five senses. We
learn by seeing, hearing smelling tasting, hearing, and feeling things.
• Empiricism advocates what has become known as a ‘correspondence theory’ of the
truth: Does the belief correspond and is it aligned with the facts that we can observe
all around us?
• This position was developed by several prominent philosophers such as John Locke,
Berkeley and Hume.
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DOES REALITY EXIST OUTSIDE OF THE HUMAN MIND?

• Locke rejected Descartes views of rational

philosophy that says we can only start with our own
consciousness.
• Thereafter he established his own position that
knowledge comes through our experiences and
senses and the actions of the physical world to us.
• The mind of a new-born baby is therefore empty or
‘tabula rasa’ (a blank slate).
• They must learn everything through their senses and
experiences. They learn by touching, tasting,
smelling, and seeing. Magee
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LIMITS TO OUR KNOWLEDGE - SCEPTICISM

• All claims to knowledge should be subjected to critical scrutiny, caution, and intellectual
rigor.
• Man is limited in his ability to gain knowledge and the appropriate way to deal with these
limitations would be to ‘purify’ knowledge through systematic doubt and continual
testing.
• Philosophical skeptics are often classified into two general categories:
• Those who deny all possibility of knowledge, (philosophical skepticism) and
• Those who advocate for the suspension of judgment due to the inadequacy of
evidence. (Methodological skepticism) Knowledge claims should thus be subjected to
scrutiny with the goal of distinguishing between true and false
claims.
• For many who believe in constructive criticism this is the best way of acquiring factual
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RENE DESCARTES

• He raised the issue of whether we can claim to know

anything about the world around us with certainty. And
if so, how?
• As with other sceptics, he raises the issue of doubts.
Even though a particular outcome may be highly
unlikely or improbable, if one can never rule them out
entirely, then there is an element of doubt.
• In other words, where there is doubt, there is no
certainty. And if we can never be certain, how can we
claim to know anything?
• Study pp 66-68