CELL

CYCLE
 How many cells are
lost each day?

Every day, more than 50

Cell Cycle
billion cells die in our bodies. FAQ’s
About 300 million cells die every
minute in our bodies
 Do dead cells disappear?

Once the neutrophils and Cell Cycle

macrophages (the phagocytes)
get to where the dead cells are, FAQ’s
they start eating them.
 How many cells are
produced in a day?
According to biologists Ron Sender
and Ron Milo of the Weizmann
Cell Cycle
Institute of Science in Israel, your
body replaces around 330 billion
FAQ’s
cells per day. At that rate, your body
is making over 3.8 million new cells
every second.
 How many cells
multiply in a day?

In human bodies, nearly

Cell Cycle
two trillion cells divide FAQ’s
every day
 What cells regenerate
the fastest?

 stomach walls and intestine

last around five days before
Cell Cycle
regeneration. FAQ’s
 Skin cells are replaced every
two to four weeks.
 What cells reproduce
the slowest?

 nerve and muscle cells Cell Cycle

FAQ’s
How many cells can reproduce?

 human cells can Cell Cycle

reproduce up to 50 or 60
times at most. FAQ’s
 What cells in the human
body live the longest?
o Brain cells: Lifetime
o Eye lens cells: Lifetime
o
o
Egg cells: 50 years
Heart muscle cells: 40 years
Cell Cycle
o Intestinal cells (excluding
lining): 15.9 years
FAQ’s
o Skeletal muscle cells: 15.1 years
o Fat cells: 8 years
o Hematopoietic stem cells: 5 years
o Liver cells: 10-16 months
o Pancreas cells: 1 year
Cell Cycle

refers to the series of events that

take place in a cell leading to its
maturity and subsequent division

The cell cycle is a four-stage

process:
 gap 1, or G1, stage: cell increases
in size
 synthesis, or S, stage: copies its
DNA
 gap 2, or G2, stage: prepares to
divide ,
 mitosis, or M, stage: divides
 Why do cells divide?

For the survival and growth of

organisms.
Maintaining chromosome numbers.
Damaged cells are renewed.
 3 types of Cell Division

Prokaryotic (Bacteria)
•Binary fission divides forming
two new identical cells

•is the division of a single entity

into two or more parts and the
regeneration of those parts to
separate entities resembling the 01/12/2024

original.
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 3 types of Cell Division

Mitosis
• is the process by which a cell
replicates its chromosomes and
then segregates them, producing
two identical nuclei in preparation
for cell division.
• Cell or organism growth
• Replacement or repair of
damaged cells 01/12/2024
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Meiosis
• a type of cell division in sexually
reproducing organisms that
reduces the number of
chromosomes in gametes (the
sex cells, or egg and sperm).
 Interphase
• period of growth and DNA replication
between cell divisions
• Interphase is when the cell grows, and
the organelles double prior to the
actual splitting of the nucleus.
• 93% of a cell’s life is spent in
interphase.
• Interphase has three parts
• Growth 1 (G1)
• Synthesis (S)
15 • Growth 2 (G2)
 G1 (GAP 1) Phase

During this phase, a cell undergoes rapid

growth and performs its routine functions.

cell increases in size

If a cell is not dividing, the cell enters the G0

phase from this phase.

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 G0 Phase
• is a resting phase where the cell has left the
cycle and has stopped dividing.

• Cells that are completely differentiated may

also enter G0.
• Situation:
• Some cells stop dividing when issues of
sustainability or viability of their daughter
cells arise, such as with DNA damage or
degradation, a process called cellular
senescence.
• Cellular senescence occurs when normal
diploid cells lose the ability to divide,
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S (Synthesis) Phase

DNA replication occurs

during this phase.

• Replication of chromosomes
• Now two strands called sister
chromatids joined by a
centromere 01/12/2024
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 G2 (GAP 2) Phase
organelles are reproduced or manufactured.

Parts necessary for mitosis and cell division

are made during G2, including microtubules
used in the mitotic spindle.

• organelles double
• new cytoplasm forms
• All other structures needed for mitosis
form

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 Summary
State Name Description

A resting phase where the

Quiescent Senescent Resting phase (G0) Cell has left the cycle and has
stopped dividing.

Cells increase in size in G1. Cells

1st growth phase (G1)
perform their normal activities.

DNA replication occurs during this

Interphase Synthesis phase (S)
phase.

The cell will continue to grow

2 growth phase (G2)
nd
and many organelles will divide
during their phase.
 Cell cycle checkpoints`
• A checkpoint is a stage in the
eukaryotic cell cycle at which the cell
examines internal and external cues
and "decides" whether or not to move
forward with division.

• three most important ones are:

• G1 Checkpoint
• G2 Checkpoint
• Spindle Checkpoint
 G1 Checkpoint
(Restriction Point) Size. Is the cell large enough to
divide?
Ensures that the cell is large enough to
divide and that nutrients are available Nutrients. Does the cell have enough
to support the resulting daughter cells. energy reserves or available nutrients
to divide?
• At the G1 checkpoint, cells decide
whether or not to proceed with Molecular signals. Is the cell receiving
division based on factors such as: positive cues (such as growth factors)
• Cell size from neighbors?
• Nutrients
• Growth factors DNA integrity. Is any of the DNA
• DNA damage damaged?
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 G2 Checkpoint
(Restriction Point)
It prevents cells from entering
mitosis when DNA is damaged,
providing an opportunity for repair
and stopping the proliferation of
damaged cells.
G2 checkpoint helps to maintain
genomic stability.
 G2 checkpoint, the cell checks for:
DNA damage
DNA replication completeness
 If errors or damage are detected,
the cell will pause at the
G2 checkpoint to allow for
repairs.
 If the damage is irreparable, the
cell may undergo apoptosis, or
programmed cell death.
 This self-destruction mechanism
ensures that damaged DNA is not
passed on to daughter cells and is
important in preventing cancer.
 Spindle Checkpoint
(Restriction Point)
the cell examines whether all the sister
chromatids are correctly attached to the  How does this checkpoint work?
spindle microtubules.
 If a chromosome is misplaced,
This checkpoint ensures that all the the cell will pause mitosis,
chromosomes are properly aligned allowing time for the spindle
before the cell is allowed to divide. to capture the stray
chromosome.
the cycle will not proceed until all the
chromosomes are firmly attached to at
least two spindle fibers from opposite
poles of the cell.
 Who regulates the check points in Cell Cycle?

Regulated by:

Cyclin (A, B, D, E)

Cyclin dependent kinase (CDK)

CDK1, CDK2, CDK4, CDK6

Tumor suppressors
pRb- protein retinoblastoma
28
p53 ADD A FOOTER
 MITOSIS
Stages: (PMAT)
Prophase
Click icon to add picture
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
 What are
Chromosomes?
– DNA containing cell’s
genetic code
– Each chromosome has a
matching pair
-- Homologous Pair
• During interphase, each
chromosome copies itself
 EUKARYOTIC CELL DIVISION
• DNA found on chromosomes located in nucleus of cell
• Cell cycle continuous process
• Cells grow
• DNA replicated
• Organelles duplicated
• Divide to form daughter cells

• 2 Main steps:
1: Mitosis (4 steps—Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase)
Nucleus divides
2: Cytokinesis—Cytoplasm divide, forming 2 cells

Each new daughter cell is genetically identical to parent cell

 MITOSIS
• Process that divides cell nucleus to produce two new nuclei
each with a complete set of chromosomes
• Continuous process Interphase 1 2

• Four phases (PMAT)

3 4
• Prophase
• Metaphase Cytokinesis
• Anaphase
• Telophase
 Prophase
 Chromatin condenses into
chromosomes.
 Nuclear envelope disappears
until nucleus is gone
 centrioles migrate to opposite
sides of the cells
 Microtubules appears between
two pairs of centrioles
( spindle)
 Metaphase
1.chromosomes line up Equator

on the equator of the

cell
2.spindles attach to
centromeres
 Anaphase
1.sister chromatids
separate
2.centromeres divide
3.sister chromatids move
to opposite poles
 Telophase
1. chromosomes uncoil
• now chromatin
2. nuclear membranes
reform
3. spindle disappears
 Cytokinesis
-Occurs at end of Mitosis
--division of the cytoplasm to
form 2 new daughter cells
--organelles are divided
-Daughter cells are genetically
identical
Cells return to interphase
Cytokinesis – Plant vs Animal Cell

• Plant cells undergo cytokinesis by

forming a cell plate between the two
daughter nuclei.

• Animal cells undergo cytokinesis

through the formation of a cleavage
furrow. A ring of microtubules contract,
pinching the cell in half.
 MEIOSIS

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 MEIOSIS
Meiosis is a type of cell division
in sexually reproducing
organisms that reduces the
number of chromosomes in
gametes (the sex cells, or egg and
sperm)
 History of Meiosis
• Meiosis was discovered and described for the first time in sea
urchin eggs in 1876 by the German Biologist Oscar Hertwig
• It was described again in 1883, at the level of chromosomes by
the Belgian Zoologist Edouard Van Beneden in Ascaris worms’
egg
• The term meiosis was coined by J.B Farmer and J.B Moore in
1905
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 Sperm
surrounding
an egg
 Homologous Chromosomes
 Pair of chromosomes similar in shape ,
size, and types of genes.
Each locus (location of the gene) in same position
on chrom.

 Humans have 23 pairs of homologues

Housefly – 6 pairs
Chicken – 39 pairs
Apple – 17 pairs
Dog – 39 pairs
Cat – 19 pairs This is a karyotype
(an image of an organism’s
chromosomes)
 Homologous
Chromosomes

eye color eye color

locus locus

hair color hair color

locus locus

Paternal Maternal
(from Dad) (from Mom)
Genetics Terminology: Ploidy
Refers to the number of sets of chromosomes in cells.

● Haploid – one copy of each chromosome

– designated as “n”, the number of
chromosomes in one “set”
– gametes
- are formed by the process of meiosis.
● Diploid – two sets of chromosomes (two of
each chromosome)
– designated as “2n”
– somatic cells
- Diploid cells undergo mitosis.
Diploid organisms receive one of each type of chromosome from female
parent (maternal chromosomes) and one of each type of chromosome from male
parent (paternal chromosomes)
 Prophase I
 Longest and most complex phase (90%).
 Chromosomes condense.
 Synapsis - a process: when Homologous Chromosomes
come together, pair up, form a tetrad.
Prophase I - Synapsis
Nonsister chromatids

sister chromatids sister chromatids

Tetrad
Prophase I - Crossing
Over

• Crossing over may

occur in the tetrad:
between nonsister
chromatids, ends
break and reattach
Crossing Over - Provides Variation
nonsister chromatids Tetrad

Chiasma: site of variation

crossing over
 Stages of Prophase 1
1. Leptotene
2. Zygotene
3. Pachytene
4. Diplotene
5. Diakinesis 01/12/2024
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1. Leptotene- This phase is the start of prophase-I. It is marked by the condensation of
the chromosomes.

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2. Zygotene- In this phase the homologous chromosomes start pairing
up, called the synapsis. The synaptonemal complex starts building up.
This complex is required to hold the homologous chromosomes at a
place close to each other. Bivalent chromosomes are visible at this stage.

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3. Pachytene- In this stage, this non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes exchange their parts, the process
is called the crossing over. The attachment point of the crossing-over of the non-sister chromatids is called chiasma.

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4. Diplotene- The crossing-over process is completed by this stage. The homologous
chromosomes remain attached at the point of chiasma.

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5. Diakinesis- The homologous chromosomes start to separate and synaptonemal complex disappears. The nuclear membrane also
disappears.
 Metaphase I
 Shortest phase; paired homologues
align.
 INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT
occurs
 pairs of homologues line up
independently of other pairs’
orientation toward the poles -- random.
Adds variation.
 Anaphase I
 Homologous chromosomes
separate towards the poles
(Tetrads separate)
 Sister chromatids remain
attached
Telophase I
 Each pole now has haploid
set of chromosomes
(however – still doubled).
 Cytokinesis occurs: two
haploid daughter cells
formed.
 Meiosis II
 No interphase II (no more DNA replication)
 Remember: Meiosis II is similar to mitosis

Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II

 Telophase II
 Same as telophase in mitosis.
 Nuclei form.
 Cytokinesis occurs (2nd time).
 Four haploid daughter cells produced
(chromosomes now back to single
condition).
gametes ~ sperm or egg; ovule or
pollen grain
 Gamete Formation in Animals

 Diff. bet. male and female gametes.

Male: spermatogenesis
 all 4 develop into sperm cells.
Female: oogenesis
cytokinesis in meiosis is uneven.
 most of cytoplasm goes into 1 of the 4 meiotic products (forms large egg
cell)
 3 other cells are small “polar bodies”, break down (extra chrom. lost).
Spermatogenesis
n=23
human
germ cell in n=23 sperm
testes Still doubled
chromosomes n=23

2n = 46
haploid (n)
n=23
n=23
Still doubled
diploid (2n) chromosomes

n=23
meiosis I
meiosis II
Oogenesis
23
human germ cell
in ovary Polar
n=23
Still doubled 23 Bodies

2n = 46 23

n=23
Still doubled

diploid (2n) Ovum

n=23
meiosis I
meiosis II
 Mitosis vs Meiosis
• Meiosis
• Mitosis
• Germ cells of gonads
• Body (somatic cells)
• 4 gamete cells made
• 2 daughter cells made (all different)
(identical) • Each w/ ½ chrom. # as parent cell
• Each w/ same # & kind of chrom. • 2 divisions
as parent cell • 2 cytokineses events
• 1 division process • Synapsis &
• 1 cytokinesis crossing over occurs
• No synapsis or crossing over in Prophase 1
• Are diploid (2n) • Are haploid (n)
Nondisjunction

• When the tetrad (in Anaphase I) or

the sister chromatids (in Anaphase II) do not separate,
creating an abnormal # of chrom. to occur in the
gametes.

• Lethal most of the time

Karyotype male
Karyotype female
 Trisomy 21: Down Syndrome

• Trisomy 21 is the most common chromosomal

anomaly in humans, affecting about 5,000 babies
born each year.
• Causes
• Down syndrome occurs because of the extra copy of
chromosome 21, which can cause the body and brain
to develop differently than a child without the
syndrome.
 Trisomy 18 – Edward syndrome
• In Victoria, Edward syndrome affects about one in 1,100 pregnancies.
Edward syndrome is also known as Trisomy 18, because the person has
three copies of chromosome 18 instead of two.

Some of the characteristics of Edward syndrome may include:

• physical irregularity of the kidneys, ureters, heart, lungs and diaphragm
• cleft lip or cleft palate
• small skull (microcephaly)
• malformations of the hands and feet – including missing thumbs, club
feet and webbing between the fingers and toes (syndactyly)
• neural tube defect, where the spinal cord, meninges and blood vessels
protrude through a gap in the vertebrae (myelomeningocele)
• malformations of the sex organs.
Trisomy 13 – Patau syndrome

• In Victoria, Patau syndrome affects around one in 3,000

pregnancies. Patau syndrome is also known as Trisomy
13, because the person has three copies of chromosome
13 instead of two.

Some of the characteristics of Patau syndrome may

include:
• small skull (microcephaly)
• an abnormal opening in the skull
• malformations of part of the brain
Trisomy 13 – Patau syndrome

• structural defects of the eyes

• cleft lip or cleft palate
• additional toes or fingers (polydactyly)
• congenital heart disorders, such as ventricular
septal defect
• neural tube defect, where the spinal cord,
meninges and blood vessels protrude through a
gap in the vertebrae (myelomeningocele)
• malformations of the sex organs.