COLLOIDAL SCIENCES

AND ENGINEERING
ADVANCES IN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING CHE801
 CREATED BY
OSHOMOGHO FREDERICK OKHAKUMHE

OKIE AGHUGHU OSAMUDIAMHEN

EDWARD CHRISTIANA EMEZUE

AKEMU ANDREW TEGA

OGANA NDUBUISI

OGANA NDUBUISI
 ORIGIN OF COLLOIDS
While studying the diffusion of solutions through an
animal membrane, Thomas Graham (1861) observed
that certain substances such as sugar, urea, sodium
chloride etc. in the dissolved state passed through the
membrane, while the solutions of substances such as glue,
gelatin, gum Arabic etc. did not. This observation led him
to classify the soluble substances into two categories:

(i) Crystalloids
(ii)Colloids
According to Graham, crystalloids were those substances which could be
obtained in crystalline form and whose solutions were able to pass
through an animal membrane. On the other hand, colloids were those
substances which were amorphous in nature and whose solutions were
unable to pass through the membrane. However, it was soon realized that
the classification of dissolved substances made by Graham was not
tenable because certain substances could act both as crystalloids and
colloids.

Later on it was found that the diffusibility of crystalloids and non-

diffusibility of colloids through an animal membrane was due to the
difference in the size of their particles. Crystalloids formed smaller
particles in solutions and therefore passed through the membrane. On the
other hand, colloids formed larger particles (larger than the dimensions of
the pores of the membrane) in solutions and were unable to pass through
the membrane.
On the basis of the size of particles, the systems containing dispersed
particles can be divided into following three categories.
1. True solutions: True solutions are homogeneous system and have the size of
dispersed particles less than 1 nm, i.e. 10-9. The particles of solute present in a true
solution are either single molecules or irons and are homogeneously distributed
throughout the solutions. These particles are invisible and cannot be seen even with
a microscope. Due to very small size of dispersed particles, true solutions pass
through ordinary filter paper as well as through animal membranes. Sodium chloride,
sugar, urea etc. form true solutions in water.

2. Colloidal solutions: Colloidal solutions are heterogeneous systems and have the
size of dispersed particles lying between 1 nm-1000 nm (i.e. 10 -9-10-6m). The
particles in a colloidal solution are thus larger particles and are referred to as
colloidal particles. Although colloidal particles are larger in size, yet they are not large
enough to be seen with naked eye. However, they can be seen with the help of an
ultra-microscope. Colloidal solutions can pass through ordinary filter paper but not
through an animal membrane, Gum Arabic, gelatin, glue etc. form colloidal solutions
when dispersed in water.

3. Suspensions: Suspensions are also heterogeneous system and have still larger
particles. The size of particles present in a suspension is more than 1000 nm (i.e.,
>10-6m). These particles are either visible to naked eye or can be seen under a
microscope. The suspensions neither pass through an animal membrane nor through
an ordinary filter paper. Stirred muddy water is an example of suspensions.
The three types of systems containing dispersed particle of different size.
 .

The three types of dispersed systems are diagrammatically shown above.

The important characteristics of true solutions, colloidal solutions and suspensions

are summarized in the following table.

From the above discussion it is clear that colloidal solutions are intermediate of true
solutions and suspensions. Colloidal solutions are not only formed by certain specific
substances as mentioned above but they can be obtained from any substance by
subdividing or aggregating its particles in the size range 1 nm-1000 nm. Practically,
all substances can be made to exist in colloidal form. Therefore instead of talking of
colloidal solution, it would be more appropriate to talk of the colloidal state of
matter. The colloidal state of matter may be defined as follows:
The colloidal state of matter is the state in which the size of the particles lies in
between 1nm (10-9m) and 1000nm (10-6m) and the systems consisting of dispersed
particles in this range are called colloidal systems.
 Table: Important Characteristics of True solutions, Colloidal solutions and
Suspensions
Property True solution Colloidal solution Suspension
1 Particle size Less than 1 nm (i.e. 10-9m) Between 1 nm-1000nm Greater than 100nm
(i.e. 10-9m-10-6m) (i.e. 10-6m)

2 Nature Homogeneous Heterogeneous Heterogeneous

3 Visibility of particles Invisible Visible under ultra- Visible to naked eye or

microscope under microscope

4 Appearance Transparent Generally transparent Opaque

but may show
translucence

5 Filterability Passes easily through ordinary Passes easily through Does not pass either
filter paper as well as animal ordinary filter paper but through ordinary
membranes not through animal filter paper or
membranes through animal
membranes
6 Setting of particles under gravity Particles do not settle Colloidal particles do Particles settle on
not settle under standing

7 Diffusion of particles Diffuses rapidly Diffuses slowly Does not diffuse

8 Scattering of light by Does not scatter light Scatters light and Tyndall effect may
particles (Tyndall effect) exhibits Tyndall effect be exhibited
COLLOIDS
The word "Colloid" was derived from the Greek, "kolla" for glue, as some
of the original organic colloidal solutions were glues. This term was first
coined in 1862 to distinguish colloids from crystalloids such as sugar and
salt. A number of methods for studying colloidal particles were developed,
including diffusion, electrophoresis, and scattering of visible light and X-
rays. Due to colloidal particles being so small, their individual motion
changes continually as a result of random collision with the molecules of
the dispersion medium. This random, zig-zagging movement is called
Brownian motion after the man who discovered it. In the early 19th
century, Michael Faraday showed that when you pass a strong beam of
light through a colloidal solution, it is scattered. This method to study
colloids was further developed by John Tyndall and became known as the
"Tyndall effect".
WHAT IS A COLLOID
A colloid is a solution that has particles ranging between 1 and 1000 nanometres in
diameter. A colloid is also known as a colloidal dispersion because the substances
remain dispersed and don't settle to the bottom in a solution. The substance being
dispersed is referred to as being in the dispersed phase, while the substance in which
it is dispersed, in the continuous phase. Both the dispersed phase and the continuous
phase may be solid, liquid, or gas; examples include suspensions: aerosols, smokes,
emulsions, gels, sols, pastes, and foams.
Colloids are often classified as reversible or irreversible, depending on whether their
components can be separated. In an irreversible system, the products are so stable or
removed so well that the original reactants cannot be reproduced. A reversible system
is one in which the products can be made to react to reproduce the original reactants.
Dyes, detergents, polymers, proteins, and many other important substances exhibit
colloidal behaviour.
A colloidal system is not a true solution but it is not a suspension either because it
does not settle out like a suspension will over time. Colloids are larger than most
inorganic molecules and remain suspended indefinitely. They are large molecules,
such as proteins, or groups of molecules. They have many properties, depending on
their large specific surface.
 Preparation of Colloidal Solutions

Bredig’s arc method

Electrical dispersion method (Bredig’s arc method): This method is used for the
preparation of sols metals such as gold, silver, platinum etc. In this method, an
electric arc is struck between the two electrodes of the metal (whose colloidal
solution is to be prepared) immersed in the dispersion medium (say water). The
dispersion medium is cooled by surrounding it with a freezing mixture. High
temperature of the arc vaporizes some of the metal. The vapour condenses to the
particles of colloidal size on cooling. The colloidal particles thus formed get
dispersed in the medium to form a sol. of the metal.
Peptization Method: In this method, a freshly prepared precipitate of the
substance is made to pass into the colloidal state by the addition of a suitable
electrolyte. The process of dispersing a freshly prepared precipitate into colloidal
form by using a suitable electrolyte is called peptization. The electrolyte added is
called peptizing agent.
Some Examples of Peptization are given below:
(a) When a small amount of ferric chloride solution is added to the freshly
precipitated ferric hydroxide, a reddish brown coloured colloidal solution of
ferric hydroxide is obtained. This occurs due to the adsorption of Fe 3+ ions over
ferric hydroxide particles which causes them to disperse into the solution due to
the electrostatic repulsions between the similarly charged particles.
(b) When a freshly prepared precipitate of silver iodide is shaken with a dilute
solution of silver nitrate, a colloidal solution of silver iodide is obtained.

Condensation Methods (Aggregation Method)

in condensation methods, the smaller particles of the dispersed phase are
aggregated to form larger particles of colloidal dimensions. Some important
condensation methods are described below.
Chemical Methods
Some chemical reactions may be used to aggregate smaller particles of atomic or ionic sizes
to form large particles of colloidal dimensions. These reactions actually involve the formation
of the dispersed phase as insoluble reaction products. Some important reactions leading to
the formation of hydrophobic sols are as follows.
(a) Oxidation: Colloidal solution of sulphur can be prepared by oxidizing an aqueous solution
of H2S with a suitable oxidizing agent such as bromine water, nitric acid or SO2.

(b) Reduction: Sols of gold, silver, platinum etc. can be obtained by the reduction of dilute
solutions of their salts with a suitable reducing agent. For example, gold sol can be
obtained by reducing a dilute aqueous solution of gold with stannous chloride.

The gold sol thus obtained is called purple of Cassius.

(c) Hydrolysis: Sols of ferric hydroxide and aluminium hydroxide can be prepared by boiling
the aqueous solution of the corresponding chlorides. For example,

FeCI3 + 3H2S --> Fe (OH)3 + 3HCI

Colloidal ferric hydroxide

(d) Double decomposition:
The sols of inorganic insoluble salts such as arsenoussulphide, silver halides etc.
may be prepared by using double decomposition reaction. For example,
arsenoussulphide sol can be prepared by passing H2S gas through a dilute aqueous
solution of arsenous oxide.

As2O3 + 3H2S --> As2S3(OH)3 + 3H2O

Colloidal arsenoussulphide

Physical Methods
Exchange of solvent:
This method involves the pouring of the true solution to another solvent in which
the solute is insoluble but the solvent is completely miscible. An exchange of
solvent gives the colloidal solution of the solute. The method may be used for the
preparation of the sols of sulphur and phosphorus. For example, sulphur is soluble
in alcohol but less soluble in water. When an alcoholic solution of sulphur is poured
into water, a colloidal solution of sulphur is obtained.
Purification of Colloidal Solutions (Sols)
Colloidal solutions prepared by the above mentioned methods usually contain the
impurities of electrolytes. The presence of electrolytes in smaller concentrations stabilizes a
sol but their presence in large concentration tends to destabilize the colloidal solution.
Therefore, it is necessary to purify colloidal solutions by removing the impurities of
electrolytes present in them. Following methods are generally used for the purification of
colloidal solutions (sols).

1. Dialysis: We have already seen that an animal membrane allows the passage of
crystalloids but retains the larger colloidal particles. This property of animal membranes is
utilized for the purification of sols. The process involved is called dialysis. It may be defined
as follows.

The process of separating the impurity particles of true solution dimensions (crystalloids)
from an impure sol by means of diffusion through a suitable membrane such as parchment
paper or cellophane membrane is called dialysis.

The apparatus used in this method is called dialyser. It consists of a bag made of parchment
or cellophane. The bag is filled with the impure sol to be purified and is suspended in a tank
through which pure water is circulated. The impurities of electrolytes present in the sol
diffuse out of the bag leaving behind pure sol in the bag.
2. Electrodialysis: Dialysis is a slow process. However, it can be expedited by applying an
electric field. Under the influence of electric field, the impurity ions move faster to the
oppositely charged electrodes and the process gets quickened. This process is referred to as
electro-dialysis.

(a) Dialysis (b) Electrodialysis

3. Ultrafiltration: The pores of an ordinary filter paper are large enough to allow the
passage of both impurity particles as well as colloidal particles. Therefore an ordinary filter
paper cannot be used for removing the impurities of electrolytes from an impure sol.
However, if the pore size of ordinary filter paper is reduced, it can be used for separating the
impurities from impure sols. This is achieved by treating an ordinary filter paper with
collodion or gelatin followed by its hardening by dipping it in formaldehyde solution. This
treatment reduces the pore size and enables it to check the passage of colloidal particles
through it. Filter papers thus obtained are called ultrafilters. Filtration through ultrafilters is
called ultrafiltration.
In ultrafiltration, the ultrafilter is supported over a wire mesh and the impure sol is poured
over it. The impurity particles (electrolytes) pass through the ultrafilter while the larger
colloidal particles are retained. The process is very slow. However, it can be expedited by
applying pressure on sol side or by using a suction pump on the filtrate side. By using a
series of graded ultrafilters, impurities of different size can easily be removed and it is
even possible to separate colloidal particles of different size from one another.

4. Ultra-centrifugation: Ultracentrifugation involves the separation of colloidal particles

from the impurities by centrifugal force. The impure sol is taken in a tube and the tube is
placed in an ultra-centrifuge. The tube is rotated at high speeds. On account of this, the
colloidal particles settle down at the bottom of the tube and the impurities remain in the
solution. This solution is termed as centrifugate. The settled colloidal particles are removed
from the tube and are mixed with an appropriate dispersing medium. Thus, the pure sol is
obtained.
Types of Colloids
There are basically five types of colloids, A common method of classifying these
colloids is based on the phase of the dispersed substance and what phase it is
dispersed in. These basic types of colloids include sol, emulsion, foam, aerosol, and gel.

 Sols: Sol is a colloidal suspension with solid particles in a liquid.

Example: Milk of Magnesia is a sol with solid magnesium hydroxide in water. solid
dispersed in liquid or solid, e.g., paint, blood

 Emulsions: liquid particles in liquid.

Example: Mayonnaise is oil in water. liquid dispersed in liquid or solid, e.g., hand
lotion, milk, butter

 Foams: Foam is formed when many gas particles are trapped in a liquid or solid. It is
the dispersion of gas in liquid or solid. Examples: whipped cream, marshmallows

 Aerosols: Aerosol contains small particles of liquid or solid dispersed in a gas.

Examples: Smoke is a solid in a gas. Fog is a liquid in a gas. liquid or solid dispersed
in a gas, e.g., air fresheners sprayed into the air

 Gels: liquids in solid.

Examples: gelatin is protein in water. Quicksand is sand in water.
Classification of Colloids
One way of classifying colloids is to group them according to the phase (solid, liquid, or
gas) of the dispersed substance and of the medium of dispersion. A gas may be
dispersed in a liquid to form foam (e.g., shaving lather or beaten egg white) or in a solid
to form solid foam (e.g., styrofoam or marshmallow). A liquid may be dispersed in a gas
to form an aerosol (e.g., fog or aerosol spray), in another liquid to form an emulsion (e.g.,
homogenized milk or mayonnaise), or in a solid to form a gel (e.g., jellies or cheese). A
solid may be dispersed in a gas to form a solid aerosol (e.g., dust or smoke in air), in a
liquid to form a sol (e.g., ink or muddy water), or in a solid to form a solid sol (e.g.,
certain alloys).
A further distinction is often made in the case of a dispersed solid. In some cases (e.g.,
a dispersion of sulfur in water) the colloidal particles have the same internal structure as
a bulk of the solid. In other cases (e.g., a dispersion of soap in water) the particles are
an aggregate of small molecules and do not correspond to any particular solid structure.
In still other cases (e.g., a dispersion of a protein in water) the particles are actually very
large single molecules. A different distinction, usually made when the dispersing
medium is a liquid, is between lyophilic and lyophobic systems. The particles in a
lyophilic system have a great affinity for the solvent, and are readily solvated (combined,
chemically or physically, with the solvent) and dispersed, even at high concentrations. In
a lyophobic system the particles resist solvation and dispersion in the solvent, and the
concentration of particles is usually relatively low.
Properties of colloid
One property of colloid systems that distinguishes them from true solutions is that
colloidal particles scatter light. If a beam of light, such as that from a flashlight, passes
through a colloid, the light is reflected (scattered) by the colloidal particles and the path
of the light can therefore be observed. When a beam of light passes through a true
solution (e.g., salt in water) there is so little scattering of the light that the path of the
light cannot be seen and the small amount of scattered light cannot be detected except
by very sensitive instruments. The scattering of light by colloids, known as the Tyndall
effect, was first explained by the British physicist John Tyndall. When an ultramicroscope
is used to examine a colloid, the colloidal particles appear as tiny points of light in
constant motion; this motion, called Brownian motion or movement:zigzag, irregular
motion exhibited by minute particles of matter when suspended in a fluid.
The particles of a colloid selectively absorb ions and acquire an electric charge. All of
the particles of a given colloid take on the same charge (either positive or negative) and
thus are repelled by one another. If an electric potential is applied to a colloid, the
charged colloidal particles move toward the oppositely charged electrode; this migration
is called electrophoresis. If the charge on the particles is neutralized, they may
precipitate out of the suspension. A colloid may be precipitated by adding another
colloid with oppositely charged particles; the particles are attracted to one another(i.e.
coagulate), and precipitate out.
Optical Properties (The Tyndall Effect)
When an intense converging beam of light is passed through a colloidal solution kept in
dark, the path of the beam gets illuminated with a bluish light. This phenomenon is
called Tyndall effect and the illuminated path is known as Tyndall cone. The
phenomenon was first observed by Tyndall in 1869.

Tyndall effect
The Tyndall effect is due to the scattering of light by colloidal particles. Since the
dimensions of colloidal particles are comparable to the wavelength of ultraviolet and
visible radiations, they scatter these radiations and get illuminated. Tyndall observed
that the zone of scattered light is much larger than the particle itself. This is why
colloidal particles look like bright spots when viewed with a microscope at right angles
to the beam of light as shown in figure. Thus, Tyndall effect may be defined as the
scattering of light by colloidal particles present in a colloidal solution.

Tyndall effect is not exhibited by true solutions. This is because the particles (ions or
molecules) present in a true solution are too small to scatter light. Thus, Tyndall effect
can be used to distinguish a colloidal solution from a true solution. The phenomenon
has also been used to devise an instrument known as ultra-microscope. The instrument
is used for the detection of the particles of colloidal dimensions. Tyndall effect also
establishes the fact that colloidal systems are heterogeneous in nature.
The membrane effect
Another method of determining whether a mixture is a colloid is by passing it through a
semipermeable membrane. The dispersed particles in a colloid would be unable to
pass through the membrane. Dialysis takes advantage of the fact that colloids cannot
diffuse through semipermeable membranes to filter them out of a medium.

Molecular size effect

In order to be classified as a colloid, the substance in the dispersed phase must be
larger than the size of a molecule but smaller than what can be seen with the naked
eye. This can be more precisely quantified as one or more of the substance's
dimensions must be between 1 and 1000 nanometers. If the dimensions are smaller
than this the substance is considered a solution and if they are larger than the
substance is a suspension.
Colloidal particles are generally aggregates of numerous atoms or molecules. They
pass through most filter papers, but can be detected by light-scattering, sedimentation
and osmosis. A characteristic of colloids is absorption, as the finely divided colloidal
particles have a large exposed surface area. The presence of colloidal particles in a
solution has only minor effects on its colligative properties (boiling, freezing point, etc.)
The particles of a colloid selectively absorb ions and acquire an electric charge. The
existence of an electric charge on the surfaces of the colloidal particles is a source of
kinetic stability for colloids. All of the particles of a given colloid are repelled by one
another as they all take on the same charge. The movement of colloidal particles
through a fluid under the influence of an electric field is known as electrophoresis.
Colloidal dispersions
Colloidal dispersions are two-phase systems comprising the dispersed phase and the continuous or
dispersion medium. The mixture is homogeneous over an appreciable time period. This period will
depend on the application; precipitated metal hydroxides for potable water treatment are purposely
short-lived in stability in order to flocculate and remove the natural organic matter. By contrast,
domestic dispersions such as paint and abrasive cleaners will have a shelf-life of several months or
years. The properties of the dispersion are determined to a large extent by the nature of the
dispersed phase-dispersion medium interface. Colloidal science and surface science are therefore
closely linked.
The selected examples shown below illustrate the scope and importance of colloidal dispersions .

Some colloidal dispersions

Dispersion Dispersed Type of Colloid Example

Medium Phase
Solid Solid Solid sol Ruby glass, Pigmented plastics
Solid Liquid gel or Solid Pearl, cheese
emulsion
Solid Gas Solid foam Lava, pumice
Liquid Solid Sol Paints, cell fluids,Ink, toothpaste.
Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, oil in water, Salad dressing
Liquid Gas Foam Soap suds, whipped cream
Gas Solid Aerosol Smoke, Pumice stone, expanded polystyrene, Inhalers, smoke
Gas Liquid Aerosol Fog, mist, sprays
Gas Solid Solid foam Pumice stone, expanded polystyrene
Liquid Gas Foam Fire extinguisher, detergent, foam
Lyophilic (liquid loving) colloids describe solutions of macromolecules. Unlike lyophobic
colloids, which are two-phase systems, lyophilic colloids are true solutions. Both
lyophobic and lyophilic colloids confer similar properties to the liquid such as gel
formation, shear thinning and shear thickening (changes in viscosity on shaking and
stirring). To understand colloidal dispersions requires a sound appreciation of both
systems since many applications use combinations of lyophobic and lyophilic colloids.
For example, polyelectrolytes aid the flocculation of metal hydroxides for water
treatment and polymeric stabilizers prevent salt-induced aggregation of gold sols.
Solutions
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more components. The dissolving agent is
the solvent. The substance which is dissolved is the solute. The components of a solution are
atoms, ions, or molecules, which makes them 10 -9 m or smaller in diameter.
Example: Sugar and Water
Suspensions
The particles in suspensions are larger than those found in solutions. Components of a
suspension can be evenly distributed by a mechanical means, like by shaking the contents,
but the components will settle out.
Example: Oil and Water
Colloids
Particles intermediate in size between those found in solutions and suspensions can be
mixed such that they remain evenly distributed without settling out. These particles range in
size from 10-8 to 10-6 m in size and are termed colloidal particles or colloids. The mixture
they form is called a colloidal dispersion. A colloidal dispersion consists of colloids in a
dispersing medium.
Example: Milk
Telling Them Apart
You can tell suspensions from colloids and solutions because the components of suspensions
will eventually separate. Colloids can be distinguished from solutions using the Tyndall
effect. A beam of light passing through a true solution, such as air, is not visible. Light
passing through a colloidal dispersion, such as smoky or foggy air, will be reflected by the
larger particles and the light beam will be visible.
HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURES
Kind of Mixture Particle Diameter Examples Characteristics
True Solutions < 1 m atoms, ions, transparent, non-filterable, won’t
molecules, separate on standing
e.g., sea water, air,
gasoline
Colloids 1 m  1 m large molecules/ions, translucent (turbid = murky),
e.g.,proteins, milk, separable by semi-permeable
butter, fog membranes, won’t separate on
standing
Suspensions > 1m large particles, e.g., murky to opaque, filterable,
paint, muddy water, separates on standing
Calomine
The Impact of Colloid Science

The preparation of gold sols by nanometer-sized particles of gold dispersed in water.

This is a stable colloid with a red coloration which changes to blue on adding salt.
The preparation of chlorochemicals for printing-inks, PVC, weedkillers and
agrochemicals. Such as Pesticides: solid-in-liquid dispersions or emulsions for crop
spraying.
Colloid science has also been in diverse subjects as effluent treatment, fabric washing
tablets, pregnancy test kits, paper making and lubricants for coal mining. the impact
of colloidal science in so many areas of industrial chemistry, evidenced by the strong
colloidal science base of companies such as Friedsland (peak milk), Shell, Unilever,
Procter & Gamble, Kodak (printers ink) and many others. Yet despite its importance, it
still surprises me that colloid science remains a subject that is glossed over in most
chemistry degrees.
Defining Ideas
colloids describes materials that are predominantly liquid but which have other
properties: either optical, giving rise to turbidity such as milk, or viscous, with
characteristics of mucus, gelatin or wet clay. These effects arise from the presence of
macromolecules dissolved in liquid and/or by mixing two or more solid, liquid or gas
phases.
Colloidal science can therefore be described on the one hand as the study of solutions
of macromolecules, for example proteins in water or solutions of synthetic polymers,
such as the clear glues for model construction kits. On the other hand it is the study of
dispersions of one phase in another, for example emulsions (oil in water or water in
oil), solid in liquid, foams and the complex lyotropic liquid crystal dispersions of soap
or synthetic detergents.
Alternatively, colloidal science is the study of systems in which one or more
dimensions is in the range of approximately 1nm to 10µm. For example, synthetic
polymers with a molecular weight of 100,000 adopt a random coil dimension of
~40nm in solution, emulsion droplets are typically 1 to 10µm in diameter, and foam
films are typically 10 to 100nm thick.
Colloid stability
Brownian motion ensures that the particles are in continual motion, giving rise to
collisions at a rate determined by diffusion theory. Owing to the high interfacial free
energy, lyophobic colloids are thermodynamically unstable and tend to aggregate. This
is generally undesirable and colloid scientists aim to prevent it from occurring.
In a stable dispersion the particle collisions do not lead to aggregation because inter-
particle repulsion forces dominate. It will remain dispersed indefinitely, although
particles bigger than about 0.1µm will sediment depending on their density. In an
unstable dispersion, the collisions lead to aggregate formation; larger aggregates either
sediment or cream depending on their relative density.
The repulsive forces in a stable dispersion were long ago identified as being electrical in
origin. A surface potential exists at the interface between the solid particle and the
surrounding liquid due to the presence of a surface charge. To maintain electrical
neutrality, ions of opposite charge present in the medium are attracted closer to the
particle surface, resulting in a diffuse layer of highly concentrated counter-ions (the ion
that accompanies an ionic species in order to maintain electrical neutrality). The
concentration of counter-ions in this layer decays exponentially from the surface over a
distance of tens of nanometers. The resulting ionic cloud is called the diffuse region of
the electric double layer. On particle-particle collision, overlap of the ionic clouds gives
rise to an osmotic repulsion that pushes the particles apart.
 Applications of Colloids
Colloids play a very important role in nature, in our daily life and in industry. Some of the
important applications of colloids are discussed below.
1. Food stuffs and medicines: Many of our food stuffs are colloidal in nature. Milk,
butter, whipped cream, fruit jellies, ice cream, bread etc. are all colloidal in nature. For
example, milk is an emulsion of butter fat in water, stabilized by milk protein (casein).
Ice cream is a dispersion of colloidal ice particles in cream. Similarly, bread consists of
air dispersed in baked dough.
Colloidal medicines are more effective and are easily absorbed by the body system.
Therefore a large number of pharmaceutical preparations are emulsions. Halibut-liver
oil, cod-liver oil, skin ointments etc. are emulsions. Antibiotics such as penicillin,
streptomycin etc. are usually injected in the body in colloidal form. Several metal sols
are also used as medicines.
2. Purification of water: In water works, water is usually purified by the addition of
certain electrolytes such as potash alum, aluminium sulphate etc. This involves the
phenomenon of coagulation. The impure water usually contains dispersed colloidal
particles which cannot be removed by filtration. When potash alum is added to impure
water, the negatively charged colloidal particles of impurities get coagulated by the
action of Al3+ ions furnished by the alum and can be removed by filtration or
decantation.
 3.Sewage disposal: Sewage water contains particles of dirt, mud etc. which are
colloidal in nature and carry some electrical charge. These particles may be removed by
using the phenomenon of electrophoresis. The sewage water is passed through a
tunnel fitted with metallic electrodes and maintained at a high potential difference. The
colloidal particles present in the sewage water migrate to the oppositely charged
electrodes and get coagulated. This solves the problem of sewage disposal. Moreover,
the rubbish matter obtained on account of the coagulation of colloidal dirt particles
may be used as manure.

Cottrell smoke precipitator

4. Drilling Fluid/Drilling Mud: Drilling fluid is a colloid with three different sizes of solid
particle: (i) colloids from about 0.005 to 1 micron (0.001mm), which impart viscous
and filtration properties. (ii) Silt and barite (inert solids) 1 to 50 microns, which provide
density. (iii) Sand, 50 to 420 microns which apart from bridging large opening in
certain very porous formation, is objectionable because of its abrasive qualities.
The activity of the colloidal fraction fundamentally is derived from the very small size
of the particle relative to its weight. Because of this high specific surface, the
behaviour of the particle is governed primarily by the electrostatic charges on their
surfaces, which gives rise to attractive or repulsive Interparticle forces. Clay minerals
are active colloids because of their shape (tiny crystalline platelets or packets of
platelets.
Drilling mud: a suspension of solids (e.g., clays, barites, small cuttings) in water, gas, or
oil with chemical additives as required to modify properties.

5. Artificial rain: Clouds are colloidal systems and consist of water vapour mixed with
dust particles. The water molecules present in a cloud develop some electrical charge.
Therefore, clouds can be made to rain by neutralizing the charge present on colloidal
particles (water molecules). This type of rain is called artificial rain and may be carried
out by spraying oppositely charged colloidal dust or sand particles over a cloud. This
neutralizes the charge on water molecules and compels them to get coagulated, i.e. to
rain.
6. Rubber industry: Latex obtained from rubber trees is an emulsion consisting of a
dispersion of negatively charged rubber particles in water. In order to obtain rubber
from latex, the latter is boiled when rubber particles get coagulated. The coagulated
mass is vulcanized and sold as natural rubber.
Rubber-plated articles can be prepared directly from latex by electrically depositing the
negatively charged rubber particles over the article to be rubber-plated by making the
article an anode in the rubber-plating bath.

7. Smoke precipitation: Smoke is colloidal system and consists of electrically charged

colloidal particles of carbon dispersed in air. As smoke is a big source of pollution. It is
always desirable to precipitate it, i.e., to remove colloidal carbon particles present in it.
The removal of colloidal carbon particles from smoke can be effected by using the
phenomenon of electrophoresis. This is achieved in an apparatus called Cottrell
precipitator as shown in figure. Smoke is allowed to pass through a chamber having a
number of metal plates attached to a metal wire connected to asource of high potential
(20,000 to 70,000V). The electrically charged colloidal particles of carbon and dust get
discharged when come in contact with the oppositely charged plates and fall down to
the bottom. The clean hot air leaves the precipitator from an exit near the top.
8. Leather tanning: During the tanning of leather, the positively charged colloidal particles of raw
skin and hides are coagulated by the negatively charged tanning materials which include tannin
and compounds of aluminium and chromium. On soaking hides in the solutions of tanning
materials, the coagulation of negatively charged tanning materials takes place in the pores of
hides and the latter get hardened.
9. Cleansing action of soaps: Soaps solution is colloidal in nature and removes dirt and oil from
clothes by forming water soluble emulsion. Each soap molecule has a long hydrocarbon chain,
sometimes called its ‘tail’, with a carboxylate ‘head’. In a solution in water, the sodium or
potassium ions float free, leaving a negatively-charged head. The hydrocarbon chain are attracted
to each other by dispersion forces and cluster together, forming structures called micelles. In
these micelles, the carboxylate qroup form a negatively-charged spherical surface, within the
hydrocarbon chains inside the spheres. Because they are negatively charged, soap micelles are
negatively charged and thus repel each other and remain dispersed in water.
Grease and oil are nonpolar and insoluble in water. When soaps and soiling oils are mixed, the
nonpolar hydrocarbon portion of the micelles breaks up the nonpolar oil molecules. A different
type of micelles then forms with nonpolar soiling molecules in the center. Thus grease, oil and the
‘dirt’ attached to them are caught inside the micelle and can be rinsed away.
10. Smoke screen: In chemical warfare, smoke screens are generally used to hide the movement
of troops. Smoke screens are the colloidal dispersions of very fine particles of titanium oxide in
air.
11. Formation of delta: When a river falls into the sea, extensive deposits of sand and clay are
formed at the mouth of the river in the sea. Such deposits are called delta. The river water
contains colloidal particles of sand and clay which carry negative charge. The sea water contains a
number of positive ions such as Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+ ion etc. When the river water comes in contact
with sea water, the negative charge present on colloidal sand and clay particles get neutralized by
the positively charged ions (present in sea water) and they get coagulated. Thecoagulated sand
and clay particles settle down and take the shape of delta in due course of time.
12. Blue colour of the sky: The sky is the empty space around earth and as such has
no colour. It appears blue due to the scattering of light by the colloidal dust particles
present in air (Tyndall effect).
13. Preparation of Nano-materials: Nano-materials which are used as catalyst are
prepared by using reverse micelles.
14. Building roads: In recent times, roads are built with asphalt emulsified in water.
This technique does not require the necessity of melting the asphalt.
15. Metallurgical operations: Several metal ores are concentrated by froth floatation
process. This process involves the treatment of the pulverized ore in emulsion of pine
oil.

Effluent treatment Precipitation and/or flocculation for clarification

Paint industry
Food industry
Cosmetics and toiletries
Detergent industry
Pharmaceutical industry
Agricultural industry
Achieve homogeneous films, toughness and 'hiding'
power
Stable creams and gels
Emulsions, toothpaste
Stabilisation of suspended soil, liquid abrasives
Stable dispersions to ensure uniform dose of active
drug
Pesticides formulated as dispersions
 COLLOIDS IN OUR EVERYDAY LIFE
PRODUCTS
1 Surface Coating (paints, video, tapes,
photographic films
2 Cosmetics and Personal care (creams,
toothpaste, hair shampoo
3 Household products (liquid detergents,
polishes, fabrics conditioners)
4 Agrochemicals (pesticides,
insecticides, fungicides)
5 Pharmaceuticals (drugs delivery
systems, aerosol sprays
6 Foodstuffs (butter, chocolate Ice
cream, mayonnaise)
7 Pigmented plastics
8 Fire-fighting foams
9 Biological cells
10 Mist and Fogs
PROCESS
Clarification of liquids (water, wine, beer)
Mineral processing (flotation, selective
flocculation)
Detergency (soil detachment,
solubilisation)
Oil recovery (drilling fluids, oil slick
dispersal)
Engine and lube oils (dispersion of carbon
particles)
Sitting of river estuaries
Ceramic process (sols = gel processing)
Road surface (bitumen emulsions)
Food Colloids
It is highly likely that you regularly consume some sort of colloidal food. Colloids are
ubiquitous in Western diets - from the milk that you pour on your breakfast cereal
and the margarine that you spread on your toast, to the dollop of mayonnaise that
enriches your sandwich and the dressing that you drizzle over your salad.
Most food colloids are emulsions: milk, cream and mayonnaise are oil-in-water
emulsions while margarine and low-fat spreads are water-in-oil. Without emulsifiers
(surface-active agents) to protect droplets and stop them from merging together,
emulsions would soon separate into their constituent phases. Two broad classes of
emulsifiers are added to foods: low-molecular weight emulsifiers (egmonoglycerides,
lecithin and polysorbates) and macromolecular emulsifiers (usually egg or milk
proteins). Proteins are particularly good emulsifiers, imparting stability through both
electrostatic and steric mechanisms.
Even with a good emulsifier, an emulsion is potentially unstable because droplets
tend to settle under gravity, causing sedimentation (if the droplets fall) or creaming
(if the droplets rise). In general, oil-in-water emulsions cream, as commonly seen in
milk, whereas water-in-oil emulsions sediment. Creaming and flocculation will
almost always occur, to some extent, in food colloid systems, but they are generally
tolerated because they are reversible and a gentle stir will solve the problem. Adding
stabilisers such as high molecular weight polysaccharides (eg carrageenan or
xanthan) extends the shelf life of colloidal foods. These increase the viscosity of
emulsions, reducing droplet movement and slowing down the process of creaming or
sedimentation.
Another way to increase stability is to reduce the size of emulsion droplets. For
example, manufacturers of cream liqueurs need to ensure that less than 3 per cent
of the emulsion droplets have droplet diameters exceeding 0.8µm. The inevitable
small amount of creaming that takes place over prolonged storage periods is hidden
behind coloured glass and strategically placed labels on the bottle necks.
Foams also require surface-active agents for stability. For example, the head on a
pint of beer is primarily stabilised by adsorbed proteins and polypeptides derived
from proteins in the malt. The ethanol present in beer helps the foam to form
because it sharply lowers surface tension, producing smaller gas bubbles. As anyone
who bakes cakes is aware, egg white is a very effective foaming agent. Its success
can primarily be attributed to proteins and glycoproteins in chicken egg albumen,
which stabilise the air bubbles that are whisked in.
Classifying food colloids is not always easy because most are complex multiple
systems. For example, ice cream is an emulsion, a foam and a dispersion,
comprising fat droplets, air cells and ice crystals dispersed in an aqueous
continuous phase and aggregated into a semi-solid frozen aerated matrix...sounds
delicious.