Class 11 Biology Notes

PREETISUDHAJI JUNIOR COLLEGE,
RAHATA
XII SCIENCE
BIOLOGY
Preface
Dear Students,
It is with immense pleasure and pride that we present to you this comprehensive guide,
meticulously crafted by three distinguished educators - Principal Dnyanesh Dange Sir,
Mubeen Shaikh Sir, and Ajay Sanap Sir. All three authors hold master's degrees in Zoology
and possess a rich academic background with more than 15 years of dedicated experience in
the field of education.
Principal Dnyanesh Dange Sir, the head of Preetisudhaji Junior College, is a visionary leader
who has steered countless students towards academic success. His commitment to quality
education and holistic development has been instrumental in shaping the academic ethos of
our institution.
Mubeen Shaikh Sir and Ajay Sanap Sir, both accomplished educators in their own right, have
been instrumental in guiding aspiring medical and engineering students in their pursuit of
excellence. Mubeen Sir's expertise lies in NEET Biology, while Ajay Sir specializes in CET
Biology, making them a dynamic duo in the realm of competitive exam preparation.
This book is a testament to the collective knowledge, experience, and unwavering dedication
of these three authors. With their qualifications and extensive teaching background, they
bring a unique blend of academic insight and practical wisdom to help you navigate the
complexities of both board exams and competitive entrance tests.
As you embark on your journey towards success in board examinations and NEET, it is
crucial to have a reliable companion that not only simplifies complex concepts but also
provides a strategic approach to mastering the subjects. This book is precisely that
companion - a result of the best efforts put forth by Principal Dnyanesh Dange Sir, Mubeen
Shaikh Sir,Ajay Sanap Sir and Trupti Devdhe Madam.
Within these pages, you will find a wealth of knowledge, well-organized content, and strategic
insights that aim to empower you in your pursuit of academic excellence. Remember, success
is not just about hard work; it's about working smartly and efficiently. This book is carefully
designed to equip you with the tools and understanding needed to excel in both board exams
and NEET.
We, the authors, sincerely hope that this book serves as a valuable resource in your
academic journey. May it inspire and guide you to reach new heights of achievement. Best of
luck!
Warm regards,
Principal Dnyanesh Dange Sir

Prof. Mubeen Shaikh
Prof. Ajay Sanap
Prof. Trupti Devdhe
XI BIOLOGY NOTES PREETISUDHAJI JUNIOR COLLEGE, RAHATA
CHAPTER-01
THE LIVING WORLD
Life is a unique, complex organization of molecules that expresses itself through chemical
reactions which lead to growth, development, responsiveness, adaptation and reproduction.
The objects exhibiting growth, development, reproduction, respiration, responsiveness and

other characteristics of life are designated as living beings.
Unique features of living organism:-
1. Growth- Living organisms grow in mass and number. A multicellular organism

increases its mass by cell division. In plants growth continuous throughout life in their
meristematic area but in animals, growth occurs to a certain age. Unicellular organisms
also grow by cell division. Living organisms show internal growth due to addition of
materials and formation of cells inside the body. Non living organism like mountains,
boulders, crystals also grow but due to addition of similar materials to their outer
surface.
2. Reproduction- It is the formation of new individuals of the similar kind. Reproduction is
not essential for survival of the individuals. It is required for perpetuation of the
population. In sexual reproduction two parents are involved to produce more or less
similar kinds of individuals. In asexual reproduction single parent is involved and
individual is copy of the parent. Asexual reproduction may occurs by fission,
fermentation, regeneration, vegetative propagation etc. In unicellular organism, growth
and reproduction are synonyms. Many organisms like mules, sterile worker bees,
infertile human couples do not reproduce. Therefore, reproduction is not an all-
inclusive characteristic of living organism. However, no nonliving object has the power
to reproduce or replicate.
3. Metabolism- The sum total of all types of chemical reactions occurring in an individual
due to specific interactions amongst different types of molecules in the interior of cells is
called metabolism. All activities of an organism including growth,
movements, development, reproduction etc. are due to metabolism. There are
two types of
XI – XII SCIENCE NEET / JEE / CET / BOARD (PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY, BIOLOGY, MATHEMATICS)
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metabolism- Catabolism and Anabolism. Anabolism includes all the building up reactions
to increase the mass of the organism like photosynthesis. In catabolism breakdown
reactions are involved, such as respiration, digestion etc. no nonliving object show
metabolism.
4. Consciousness- It is the awareness of the surroundings and responding to external
stimuli. External stimuli may be physical, chemical or biological. Plants also responds
to stimuli like light, water, gravitation, pollution etc. All living organisms prokaryotic to
eukaryotic responds to different kinds of stimuli. Human being is only organism who is
aware of himself. Consciousness therefore, becomes the defining property of living
organisms.
5. Life span- every living organism has a definite life span of birth, growth, maturity,
senescence and death.
6. Living organisms are therefore, self-replicating, evolving and self-regulatory
interactive systems capable of responding to external stimuli.
Diversity in the living world or biodiversity is the occurrence of variety of life forms differing
in morphology, size, colour, anatomy, habitats and habits. Each different kind of plant,
animal or microorganisms represents a species.
Currently there are some 1.7 - 1 . 8 million living organisms known to science. Out of which
1.25 are animals and about 0.5 millions are plants.
• Identification
• Nomenclature
• Classification
• Systematics is branch of biology that deals with cataloguing plants, animals and
other organism into categories that can be named, compared and studied.
• Identification is the finding of correct name and place and place of an
organism in a system of classification. It is done with the help of keys. This is
carried out by
determining similarity with already known organisms.
• Nomenclature is the process of standardize naming of living organism such
that a particular organism is known by the same name all over the world. For
plants scientific names are based on international code of botanical nomenclature
(ICBN) and animals names on international code of zoological nomenclature
(ICZN). Scientific name ensures that each organism has only one name.
Biological nomenclature- It is the universally accepted principles to provide scientific name

to known organisms. Each name has two components- generic name (genus) and specific
epithet (species). This system of nomenclature was provided by Carolus Linnaeus.
Mango- Mangifera indica.
Human beings- Home sapience.
Universal rules of nomenclature:-
1. Biological names are generally in Latina and written in italics.

2. The first word in a biological name represents the genus while the second component
denotes the specific epithet.
3. Both the words in biological name, when handwritten, are separately
underlined, or printed in italics.
4. The first word denoting the genus starts with a capital letter while the specific
epithet
starts with small letter.
• Classification- It is the process by which anything is grouped into convenient

categories based on some easily observable characteristics. Classification makes the
study of organisms convenient.
• Taxonomy- The process of classification on the basis of external and internal
structure along with internal structure of cell, development process and ecological
information is known as taxonomy.
Taxonomic categories
A taxonomic category is a rank or level in the hierarchical classification of organism. There

are seven obligate categories and some intermediate categories. Since the category is a part
of overall taxonomic arrangement, it is called taxonomic category and all categories
together constitute the taxonomic hierarchy.
Taxonomic hierarchy is shown below:-
KINGDOM
DMSION/PHYLLUM
CLAS
S
ORDE
R
FAMILY
GENU
S
SPECIES
• Species- Species are the natural population of individuals or a group of population

which resemble one another in all essential morphological and reproductive
characters so that they are able to interbreed freely and produce fertile
offspring. For Mango tree indica is species of genus Mangifera(Mangifera
indica).
• Genus- it is a group of related species which resemble one another in certain
correlated characters. All species of genus presumed to have evolved from a common
ancestor. Lion, Tiger, Leopard are closely related species and placed in same genus
Panther.
• Family- It is a taxonomic category which contains one or more related
genera. All genera of a family have some common features or correlated
characters. Family Solanacaeae contains a number of genera like Solanum,
Withania, Datura etc.
• Order- This category includes one or more related families. Families felidae and
canidae are included in same order carnivore.
• Class- A class is made of one or more related orders. The class dicotyledoneae
of flowering plants contains all dicots which are grouped into several orders like
roales, polemoniales, renales etc.
• Division/Phylum-The term phylum is used for animals while division is used for
plants. They are formed of one or more class. The phylum chordate of
animals contains not only the mammals but also aves, reptiles, amphibians,
etc.
• Kingdom- It is the highest taxonomic category. All plants are included in the kingdom
Plantae while all animals belong to kingdom Animalia.
• Taxonomic Aids:- Techniques, procedures and stored information that are useful in
identification and classification of organisms are called taxonomic aids.
• Herbarium-Herbarium is a place where dried and pressed plants specimens,
mounted on sheets are kept systematically according to a widely accepted
system of classification. The herbarium sheets also carry a label providing
information about date and place of collection, English, local and botanical
names, family, collector's
name etc.
• Botanical garden- They are specialized gardens having collection of living
plants for reference. Plants in these gardens are grown for identification purpose
and each plant is labelled indicating its scientific name and family. The famous
botanical garden includes Royal botanical garden, Kew (London), Indian botanical
garden, Kolkata and National botanical garden, Lucknow.
• Museums- Biological museum is set up in educational institutions like
colleges and
school for reference purposes. Specimens are preserved in the containers or jars in
preservative solutions or as dry specimens. Insects are preserved in insect boxes after
collecting, killing and pinning.
• Zoological parks- These are the places where wild animals are kept in protected
environments under human care and which enable us to learn about their
food habits and behavior. Natural habitats are provided as far as possible.
Key- Taxonomic key is an artificial analytic device having a list of statements with
dichotomic table of alternate characteristics which is used for identifying organisms. Usually
two contrasting characters are used. The one present in the organism is chosen while other is
rejected. Each statement of a key is called lead. Separate taxonomic keys are used for each
taxonomic category like species, genus, family, etc. Keys are generally analytical in nature.
Flora, manuals, monographs and catalogues are some other means of recording descriptions.
CHAPTER-OZ
BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
Biological classification is the scientific procedure of arranging organisms into groups and
subgroups on the basis of their similarities and dissimilarities and placing the group in a
hierarchy of categories.
Importance of classification-
• It is not possible to study every organism. Study of one or two organism of a group
gives sufficient information about the essential features of the group.
• It helps in identification of new organism.
• Classification helps in knowing the relationship amongst different groups
of organisms.
• The organism of past cannot be studied without a proper system of
classification.
Classification
• Artificial system of classification

• Natural system of classification
• Phylogenetic system of classification
Artificial system of classification- Only one or two morphological characters for grouping
of organism is used. Flowering and non-flowering plants, enaima and anaima. Aristotle
classification.
Natural system of classification-Takes into consideration comparable study of a number of

characters so as to bring out natural similarities and dissimilarities and hence natural
relationships among the organisms. Bentham and Hooker classification, etc.
Phylogenetic System of Classification- Based on the evolutionary relationship of

organisms. In this system organism are classified on the basis of their evolution on earth
from primitive to highly evolved. Engler and Prantl classification and Hutchinson
classification, etc.
Depending upon the type of system of classification organism are classified into
following kingdom system.
Kingdom system of classification
• Two kingdom : Plantae Animalia

• Three kingdom : Plantae Protista Animalia
• Five kingdom: Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animaila
• In two kingdom system of classification organisms are grouped on the basis of
presence and absence of cell wall as proposed by Linnaeus( father of
taxonomy).
• Three kingdom systems- Haeckel separated unicellular animals, algae and fungi on
the basis of lack of tissue differentiation and new kingdom Protista was
introduced.
• Five kingdom systems- RH.Whittaker divided all the organism into five kingdom
in order to develop phylogenetic classification.
1. Monera- The kingdom includes all prokaryotes- mycoplasma, bacteria, actinomycetes

and cyanobacteria.
2. Unicellular, prokaryotes and contain the most primitive of living forms

3. The cells are microscopic and cell wall is generally present.
4. Genetic materials are not organized into nucleus and contain naked DNA.
5. Membrane bounded organelles are absent.
6. Reproduction is asexual except gene recombination.
7. Flagella may be present and are of single stranded.
Example- Blue-green algae, Bacteria, etc.

Coccus Spirillum
Bacteria are the most abundant micro-organism that can survive in all kinds of climate.
pi,en(ll I splraI or eolIed
shaped Bacteria shaped
Bacillus Vibrio
rod sh.aped c.omma.shape
d
BndU1
• They are group of most primitive prokaryotes which live under most hostile
conditions like extreme salty area (halophiles), hot springs (thermoacidophiles) and
marshy area (methanogens). They differ from other bacteria in having different cell
wall structure (absence of peptidoglycan). Methanogens are present in the gut of
several ruminant animals like cows and buffalo, which is responsible for production
of biogas (methane) from dung of these animals.
Eubacteria - They are called as true bacteria. They contain rigid cell wall, if motile contain
flagellum. Cyanobacteria or blue-green algae are gram positive photosynthetic bacteria. They
contain chlorophyll a and carotenoids. They may be unicellular, colonial or filamentous,
fresh water, marine or terrestrial. Some of them have specialized heterocyst cells to perform
nitrogen fixation (Nostoc and Anabaena).
Chemosynthetic bacteria oxidize inorganic substances like nitrate, nitrite, ammonia etc. to
produce energy and help in recycling of nitrogen, phosphorous, sulphur etc.
Heterotrophic bacteria are most abundant and act as decomposer. They are helpful in
production of curd, antibiotic and fixing nitrogen in leguminous plants. Some of them
are pathogenic and cause disease like cholera, typhoid, tetanus and citrus canker.
Eubacte ia
Photosynthetic Cheminynthetk
blue-green illgae, nostoc, al'laba na vestimen lfera, calyp ogemi.
Mycoplasma - they are the simplest free living prokaryotes. They are also known as PPLO
(Pleuropneumonia like organism). They lack cell wall and can survive without oxygen.
They cause disease in plants and animals.
Protista- Kingdom Protista includes Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates, Eugleoids, slime

mould and Protozoans.
1. It includes all unicellular and colonial eukaryotes.

2. Most of them are aquatic forming plankton.
3. Mode of nutrition may be photosynthetic, saprophytic, parasitic or holozoic.
4. Flagella if present are 11 stranded with 9+2 arrangement of microtubules
composed of tubulin.
5. Genetic material consists of 2 or more DNA molecules.
• They includes diatoms and golden algae (desmids) found in fresh water as well as
marine water.
• In diatoms cell wall forms two thin overlapping cells which fit together as in soap
box.
• The siliceous indestructible cell wall pile up at the bottom of water reservoirs and
form big heaps called diatomaceous earth. It may extend for hundred meter and
used for polishing, filtration of oil and syrups. They are chief producer in oceans.
• They are basically unicellular, motile, biflagellate and photosynthetic protists.
• Predominate colour is golden brown but yellow, green, red and even blue also
exists.
• Some Dinoflagellates like Gymnodinium and Gonyaulax grow in large number in the
sea and make the water look red and cause the so called "red tide".
• They are Euglena like unicellular flagellates which possess pellicle instead of
cell wall which make their body flexible.
• They have two flagella, one short and other long.
• They are photosynthetic in presence of sunlight and act as predators in absence of
sunlight.
• Example- Euglena, Peranema.
Slime Moulds
• They are saprophytic protists and feeds on decaying twigs and leaves.
• Under favorable condition, they form an aggregation called plasmodium which
produce fruiting bodies bearing spores.

• The cell wall of spores contain cellulose.
• The spores are dispersed by air currents.
• Example- Physarum, Fuligo.
Protozoans
• All protozoans are heterotrophs and live

as predators or parasites.
• They are considered as primitive
relatives of animals.
• Amoeboids move and capture food by
pseudopodia. Some are parasitic also.
• Flagellated protozoans are free-living or
parasitic. They have flagella.
Amoebold.s
• Ciliated protozoans are aquatic and have
Amoeba,
Entamoeba
cilia all over the / body for movement.
• Sporozoans includes organism that have
infectious spore like stage in their life
cycle.
Plasmodium Trypanosc:ma ,/
Kingdom Fungi-
• They are achlorophyllous, heterotrophic, spore forming, non-vesicular

eukaryotic organisms.
• Cell wall is made up of chitin or fungal cellulose.
• Reserved food is glycogen.
• Mode of nutrition is saprophytic, parasitic or symbiotic.
• Reproduction may be vegetative (fragmentation, fission or budding), asexual
(conidia, sporangiospores or zoospores) or sexual reproduction by oospores,
ascospore and basidiospores.
• Sexual cycles involves the following steps-
1. Plasmogamy, fusion of male and female gametes.

2. Karyogamy, fusion of two nuclei.
3. Meiosis in zygote to produce haploid spores.
Phycomycetes-
• They are found in aquatic habitat and on decaying wood in moist and damp places.
• The mycelium is aseptate and coenocytic.
• Asexual reproduction by zoospores( motile) or aplanospores (non-motile).
• Example- Mucus, Rhizopus, Albugo etc.
Ascomyoete5
Ascomycetes (The sac fungi)
• They are saprophytic, decomposers, parasitic or coprophilous (growing on dung).

• Mycelium and branched and septate and asexual spores are conidia.
• Sexual spores are called ascospores produced inside the fruiting body called
ascocarps.
Example- Neurospora, Asperigillus, Claviceps etc.
Basidiomycetes (The club fungi)
• The mycelium is branched and septate.

• Vegetative reproduction is by fragmentation. Asexual spores are not found. Sexual
reproduction is by two vegetative or somatic cells forming basidium.
• Basidiospores are produced in basidium by developing a fruiting body called
basidiocarps.
• Example- Agaricus, Ustilago, Puccinia.
Deuteromycetes (The fungi imperfect)
• Only vegetative and asexual phase is known.

• Mycelium is septate and branched. Some members are saprophytes or parsites.
• Example- Alternaria, Trichoderma, Colletotrichu.
Kingdom Plantae
1. Eukaryotic, chlorophyll bearing organism.

2. Life cycle is divided into diploid saprophytic and haploid gametophytic, which alternate
with each other.
3. Kingdom Plantae includes Algae, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and
Angiosperms.
Kingdom Animalia
4. Heterotrophic, eukaryotic organisms that are multicellular and cell wall is absent in the
cell.
5. Mode of nutrition is holozoic and reserve food is glycogen or fats.
6. Sexual reproduction is by copulation between male and female followed by
embryological development.
Virus, Viroids and Lichens
Five kingdom system of classification do not includes Virus, Viroids and

Lichens.
• Viruses are non-cellular organisms having inert crystalline structure outside the
living. When they enter the living cell, they take over the machinery of living cell to
replicate themselves.
• D.J.lvanowsky recognized certain microbes as causal organism of mosaic disease of
tobacco.
• In addition to proteins, viruses also contain genetic material that could be
DNA or RNA. In general, virus that infect plants have single stranded RNA and
virus that infect animals have double stranded DNA.
• Some common diseases caused by virus are common cold, influenza, AIDS, small pox,
leaf rolling and curling.
• Bacteria feeding virus are called Bacteriophage.They are usually double stranded
DNA viruses.
• The protein coat called capsid is made of small subunits called capsomeres, protects
the nucleic acid. These capsomeres are arranged in helical or polyhedral geometric
forms.
• Viroids are discovered by T.0.Diener as new infectious agent smaller than virus
causing potato spindle tuber disease. They are free RNA without protein
coat.
Lichens are symbiotic association between algae and fungi. The algal part is called
Phycobiont and fungal parts are called Mycobiont. They are good pollution indicator as
they do not grow in polluted area.
CHAPTER-03
PLANT KINGDOM
• Eukaryotic, multicellular, chlorophyll containing and having cell wall, are grouped
under the kingdom Plantae. It is popularly known as plant kingdom.
• Phylogenetic system of classification based on evolutionary relationship is presently
used for classifying plants.
• Numerical Taxonomy use computer by assigning code for each character and
analyzing the features.
• Cytotaxonomy is based on cytological information like chromosome
number, structure and behaviour.
• Chemotaxonomy uses chemical constituents of plants to resolve the
confusion.
kingddom
Phanerogamae,
(Plants wi hout seeds}
{Plants wit eeds)
a. Thaltophyta
c. Pteridophyta
Algae: These include the simplest plants which possess undifferentiated or thallus like
forms, reproductive organs single celled called gametangia. It includes only Algae.
Characteristic of Algae
• Plant body is thallus, which may be unicellular, colonial, filamentous

or parenchyrnatous.
• Usually aquatic but a few are also found in moist terrestrial habitats like tree
trunks, wet rocks, moist soil, etc.
• Vascular tissues and mechanical tissues are absent.
• Reproduction is vegetative by fragmentation, asexual by spore formation
(zoospores)
and sexual reproduction by fusion of two gametes which may be lsogamous

(Spirogyra), Anisogamous (Chlamydomonous) or Oogamous (Volvox).
• Life cycle is various- haplontic, diplontic or diplohaplontic.
,....--.....
Algae
A )(
Phaecophcea.e
A
Rhodophyceae
Chlorophyceae
(Green Afgae) (Brown Algae) (Red Algae]
'-. _ / '-.._/
'---""'
Green Algae Brown Algae Red Algae
Mostly fresh water and

Mostly marine. Mostly marine.
sub aerial.
Unicellular organisms Unicellular species are

Unicellular species fewer.
abundant. absent.
Chlorophyll a and b type. Chlorophyll a and c type. Chlorophyll a and d type.
Reserve food is starch Reserve food is laminarin. Reserve food is floridean starch.
Cell wall contains Cell wall contains cellulose and poly-

Cell wall is of cellulose.
cellulose and algin. sulphate esters.
Fucoxanthin is absent Fucoxanthin present. Phycoerythrine is present.
Zoospores present. Zoospores present. Zoospores absent.
Chlamydomonas, Focus, Sargassum, Polysiphonia, Gelidium, Porphyra

Ulothrix, spirogyra. ectocarpus. etc.
Economic importance-
1. A number of brown algae ( Laminaria, Sargassum) are used as food in some countries.
2. Fucus and Laminaria are rich source of Iodine.
3. Laminaria and Ascophyllum have antibiotic properties.
4. Alginic acid is obtained from Fucus and Sargassum, which is used as emulsions.
Bryophytes - They are non-vascular mosses and liverworts that grow in moist shady region.
They are called amphibians of plants kingdom because these plants live on soil but
dependent on water for sexual reproduction.
Characteristic features-
• Live in damp and shady habitats, found to grow during rainy season on damp
soil, rocks, walls, etc.
• The dominant phase or plant body is free living gametophyte.
• Roots are absent but contain rhizoids
• Vegetative reproduction is by fragmentation, tubers, gemmae, buds etc. sex organs
are multicellular and jacketed. The male sex organ is called antheridium.
They produce biflagellate antherozoids. The female sex organ called archegonium
is flask
shaped and produces a single egg.
• Sporophyte is dependent on gametophyte for nourishment.
Bryophytes Hepaticopsida (Liverworts)
• The plant body of a liverwort is thalloid, e.g., Marchantia. The thallus is dorsiventral
and closely appressed to the substrate.
• Asexual reproduction in liverworts takes place by fragmentation, or by the formation
of specialised structures called gemmae.
• Gemmae are green, multicellular, asexual buds, which develops in small
receptacles called gem.ma cups. The gemmae becomes detached from the parent
body and germinate to form new individuals
• During sexual reproduction, male and female sex organs are produced either
on the same or on different thalli. The sporophyte is differentiated into a foot, seta
and
capsule. Spores produced within the capsule germinate to form
free-living gametophytes.
Bryopsida (Mosses)
archantia male thallus Marchantia female thallus
• The gametophyte of mosses consists of two stages- the first stage is protonema stage,
which develops directly from spores. It is creeping, green and frequently filamentous.
The second stage is the leafy stage, which develops from secondary protonema as
lateral bud having upright, slender axes bearing spirally arranged leaves.
• Vegetative reproduction is by the fragmentation and budding in secondary
protonema. In sexual reproduction, the sex organs antheridia and archegonia are
produced at the apex of the leafy shoots.
• Sporophytes in mosses are more developed and consist of foot, seta and capsule.
• Common examples are Funaria, Polytrichum, Sphagnum etc.
Pteridophytes
Cap ult
SJJ(lrOJ>h)tC-
Gamclophyle
• They are seedless vascular plants that have sporophytic plant body and inconspicuous
gametophyte. Sporophytic plant body is differentiated into true stem, roots and
leaves.
• Vascular tissue are present but vessels are absent from xylem and companion cells
and sieve tube are absent.
• Sporophytes bear sporangia that are subtend by leaf like appendages called
sporophylls. In some plants (Selaginella) compact structure called strobili or cone is
formed.
• Sporangia produce spores by meiosis in spore mother cells. Spores germinate to
produce multicellular thalloid, prothallus.
• Gametophyte bears male and female sex organ called antheridia and
archegonia. Water is required for fertilisation of male and female gametes.
• Most of Pteridophytes produce spores of similar kind (homosporous) but in
Selginella
and Salvinia, spores are of two kinds (heterosporous) larger called megaspore that
produce female gametophyte and smaller microspore that produce male gametes.
Psllopsfd Lycop da
a llycop0d1W"n,S e l t ! i l
(Psik:ilU'II
Pterido:phyte
s
Sphenopsfd Allcopslda
[Eqt1 ) jP!e.ris,Ad u
Gymnosperms:
• Gymnosperms are those plants in which the ovules are not enclosed inside
the ovary wall and remain exposed before and after fertilisation.
• They are perennial and woody, form.ing either bushes or trees. Some are very large
(Sequoia sempervirens) and others are very small (Zamia pygmia).
• Stem may be unbranched(Cycas) or branched(Pinus). Root is taproot. Leaves may be
simple or compound.
• They are heterosporous, produce haploid microspore and megaspore in
male and female Strobili respectively.
• Male and female gametophytes do not have independent free-living existence.
Pollination occurs through air and zygote develops into embryo and ovules into seeds.
These seeds are naked.
• Example- Pines, Cycus, Cedrus, Ginkgo, etc.
Angiosperms
• Pollen grain and ovules are developed in specialized structure called flower. Seeds
are enclosed inside the fruits.
• Size varies from almost microscopic Wolfia (0.lcm)to tall tree Eucalyptus (more
than
100m
• The male sex organs in a flower is the stamen. It contains pollen grain.
• The female sex organs in a flower is the pistil or the carpel. Pistil consists of an ovary
enclosing one or many ovules. Within ovules are present highly reduced female
gametophytes termed embryo-sacs.
• Each embryo-sac has a three-celled egg apparatus - one egg cell and two synergids,
three antipodal cells and two polar nuclei. The polar nuclei eventually fuse to produce
a diploid secondary nucleus.
Angiosperms are further classified into:
• Monocotyledons
• Dicotyledons
Monocotyledons Dicotyledons
1. Single cotyledons. 1. Two cotyledons.

2. Parallel venation. 2. Reticulate venation.
3. Fibrous root system. 3. Tap root system.
4. Closed vascular bundle. 4. Open vascular bundle.
5. More number of vascular bundles. 5. Less number of vascular bundles.
6. Banana, wheat, rice. 6. Gram, mango, apple.
• Double fertilisation- Each pollen grain produce two male gametes. One
gametes fuse with egg to form embryo. This is called Syngamy. Other gametes fuse
with two polar nuclei to form endosperm, triple fusion. Since fertilisation takes place
twice, it is called double fertilisation.
Alternation of generation
CHAPTER-04
ANIMAL KINGDOM
• Millions of species of animals have been described and it becomes more necessary to
classify them to assign a systematic position.
• Animals are classified on the basis of arrangement of cells, body symmetry, nature
of coelom, pattern of digestive, circulatory and reproductive system.
sof orssnis,etlon
Cellular Oragn sys-rem

Level level
Sponges Platyhelminthes I Arthropo §7
• Incomplete digestive system has one opening but complete digestive system has two
opening- mouth and anus.
• Open circulatory system- blood is pumped out of heart and cells and tissue are
directly bathed in it.
• Closed circulatory system- blood is circulated through arteries, veins and
capillaries.
l
.... Symmetry
. I
I I
,,
Symrnetrical A ymetrical
Dilatera S}'l'lm1
(can be divided into two equal (body lsnotdivislblelntoequal
.... parts) halve)
::J
. I I!.
eg.Amoeba,
I ,. ·- Sponges.
Ra:diaESymmetry
-
(c.an be dMd din oe,qao[halv·es bya·ny p try
(can oedlv dedequalh.llvesbvonlyoneplane)
aM e.s..all
pa$'Sins'ttlrougb cen r I q. S t ar ash, hydra vertibra..t"i.
• The animals in which cells are arranged in two embryonic layer, external ectoderm
and internal endoderm are called diploblastic. Eg. Porifera and Cnidaria.
• The animals in which developing embryo has a third germinal layer, mesoderm
besides ectoderm and endoderm are called triploblastic. Eg. Platyhelminthes,
Chordates.
• The body cavity which is lined by mesoderm is called coelom. Animals possessing
coelom are called coelomate (Annelida, Chordates, Mollusca). In some animals cavity
is not lined by mesoderm but scattered as pouches in between ectoderm and
endoderm, are called pseudo-coelomates (Aschelminthes). The animals in which
body cavity is absent are called acoelomate (Platyhelminthes).
• In some animals, body is externally and internally divided into segments with serial
repetition as in earthworm, called metameric segmentation.
CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS
Phylum Porifera-
• Members of this phylum are commonly known as sponges. Mostly marine,

asymmetrical and have cellular level of organization.
• They have water transport or canal system. Water enters through minute
pores, Ostia
into central cavity Spongocoel, from where it goes out through Osculum.
• Nutrition, respiration and excretion is performed by pathway of water

transport system.
• Skeleton made up of spicules or spongin fibres.
• Egg and sperms are produced by same organism (hermaphrodite). Asexual
reproduction by fragmentation and sexual reproduction by gametes formation.
• Fertilisation internal and development is indirect.
• Example- Sycon, Spongilla.
Phylum Cnidaria ( Coelenterate)-
• They are aquatic, mostly marine, sessile, free swimming, radially symmetrical
animals.
• They exhibit tissue level of organization, diploblastic, coelomate with single
opening.
• They show two types of body called polyp and medusa.
• Polyp is sessile, fixed, and cylindrical, without gonads. Example: Hydra,
Adamsia.
Medusa is free swimming, umbrella like having gonads like Aurelia and Jelly
fish.
• Some cnidarians exhibits both forms (Obelia). Polyp produce medusa asexually and
medusa produce polyp sexually.
Phylum Ctenophora-
• Commonly known as the Comb Jellies or Sea Walnuts.

• Exclusively marine, diploblastic, radially symmetrical, with tissue level
of organization.
• Body bears eight ciliated comb plates which help in locomotion.
• Bioluminescence (to emit light) is present in Ctenophores.
• Are Hermaphrodite, fertilisation is external, development indirect.
• Example- Ctenoplana, Pleurobranchia.
Phylum Platyhelminthes (The Flat worms)
• Dorso-ventrally flattened body, bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, acoelomate

with organs levels of organization.
• Hooks and sucker are present in parasitic forms. Flame cells help in osmoregulation
and excretion.
• XIFertilisation is internal, development is indirect. They are hermaphrodite.
– XII SCIENCE NEET / JEE / CET / BOARD (PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY, BIOLOGY, MATHEMATICS)
• Example- Taenia, Planaria, Fasciola.
Phylum Aschelminthes (The Round Worm)
• They may be free-living, aquatic, terrestrial or parasitic in plants or animals.

• Bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, pseudo coelomate.
• Alimentary canal is complete with well-developed muscular pharynx.
• They are Dioecious. Females are longer than male.
• Example- Ascaris (round worm), Wucheriria(filarial worm), Ancyclostoma.
Phylum Annelida
• Aquatic or terrestrial, bilaterally symmetrical, segmented with organ system level

of organization.
• Aquatic Annelids like Nereis possesses lateral appendages parapodia, for swimming.
Nephridia help in osmoregulation and excretion.
• Neural system consists of paired ganglia connected by lateral nerves to a
double ventral nerve cord.
• Dioecious (Nereis) or monocious (earthworm, leech)
• Example- Pheretima (earthworm), Hirunidaria (Blood sucking leech).
Phylum Arthropoda
• Largest phylum of animals which includes insects. They have organ system of
organization. They are triploblastic, coelomate, bilaterally symmetrical with
chitinous exoskeleton.
• Body consists of head, thorax and abdomen, jointed appendages (jointed
feet). Respiratory organs are gills, book lungs or tracheal system with open
circulatory system.
• Excretion through malpighian tubules, sense organs antenna or eyes.
Fertilisation internal, mostly oviparous.
• Example-
Economically important - Apis (honey bee), Bombyx (silk worm).
Vectors - Anopheles, Ades, Culex (mosquito).
Living fossils - Limulus (king crab)
Phylum Mollusca
• Terrestrial or aquatic, organ level of organization, bilaterally symmetrical,

triploblastic and coelomate.
• Body divided into head, muscular foot and visceral hump. Unsegmented and
covered with calcareous shell.
• Feather like gills are present between hump and mantle.
• Mouth contains file like rasping organ for feeding called radula.
• Example- Pila, Octopus.
Phylum Echinodermata (The Spiny Skinned Animals)
• Endoskeleton of calcareous ossicles, marine with organ system of organization.

• Triploblastic, coelomate, presence of water vascular system help in locomotion,
capture of food and respiration.
• Sexes are separate, fertilisation is external and development is indirect.
• Example- Asterias (Star fish), Cucumaria (Sea cucumber), Antedon (Sea lily).
Phylum Hemichordata
• Worm-like marine animals with organ system of organization, bilaterally

symmetrical, triploblastic and coelomate animals.
• Body is cylindrical, composed of anterior proboscis, a collar and a long
trunk.
• Open circulatory system, respiration by gills, excretory organ is proboscis
glands.
• Sexes are separate, fertilisation external, indirect development.
• Example-Balanoglossus, Saccoglossus.
Phylum Chordates
• Presence of notochord, have dorsal hollow nerve chord and paired

pharyngeal gill slits.
• Bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomate with organs system levels
of organization.
• Closed circulatory system, ventral heart, post-anal tail is present.
Sllb-PhyluJD • •Phy1ru_tn
Urocho,rdata Cephalocho,·nlata uh- b y l u m . Ve r t e b r a t a
• In Urochordata, notochord is present only in larval tail. In Cephalochordate it

extends from head to tail and persists throughout the life.
• Vertebrata possesses notochord in embryonic period which is replaced by vertebral
column in the adults.
• Sub-phylum Vertebrata is further divided into two division Agnatha( lacks jaw)
and
Gnathostomata ( bears jaw).
• Gnathostomata is further divided into two super class- Pisces( bears fins) and
Tetrapoda (bears limbs).
Class Cyclostomata (Circular mouthed fishes)-
• They are ectoparasites on some fishes. They have sucking and circular mouth without
jaws.
• Body devoid of scales, gill slits for respiration, cranium and vertebral column is
cartilaginous.
• Circulation is closed type. They are marine but migrate to fresh water for spawning
and die after few days. Larva return to seas after metamorphosis.
• Example- Petromyzon (Lamprey), Maxine (Hag fish).
Class Chondrichthyes (The Cartilaginous Fish)
• They are marine, streamlined body, have cartilaginous endoskeleton, cold blooded,
tough skin with minute placoid scales.
• Gill slits are separate without operculum.
• They have powerful jaw and are predators.
• Air bladder is absent, hence to avoid sinking swims constantly. Heart is two
chambered, cold blooded (Poikilotherrnous).
• Sexes separate. Males have pelvic fins which bear claspers. Internal fertilisation,
many are viviparous.
• Electric organ is present in Torpedo and Poison sting in Trygon
Example- Scoliodon (Dog fish), Carcharodron (great white shark).
Class Ostechthyes (The body fish)
• Marine and fresh water both have bony endoskeleton. Streamlined body with four
pair of gills covered by operculum.
• Skin is covered with scales, air bladder is present, and heart is two chambered,
cold blooded.
• Sexes are separate, fertilisation external, oviparous and development direct.
Example
Marine-Hippocampus (Sea horse), Exocoetus (Flying fish).
Fresh water- Labeo (Rohu), Catla ,Clarias (Magur).

..--..
Tetrapoda
;x:: :::r:: ;:c:::

Class
Amphibia :
Class
Reptilia: : Glass
....A..ves...
Class
-......;_/
M ..a.m
Amphibia Reptilia ,,
m aAves
ls Mammals
Can live in
Mostly terrestrial Presence of feathers for Mostly terrestrial, a few
aquatic as well as
animals. flying. can fly and live in water.
terrestrial
habitat.
Limb two pair if Forelimb is modified into

Two pairs of limbs Two pair of limbs.
present. wings.
Dry and cornified Skin is dry without glands. Skin possesses hairs.
Moist skin
skin having scale Long bones are hollow Mammary gland is
without scales. with air cavities. present to produce milk.
or scute.
Respiration by Respiration by
gills, lungs or lungs. Respiration by lungs. Respiration by lungs.
skin.
Heart three
Heart three
chambered, Heart is four chambered,
chambered, cold Heart four chambered.
Crocodile 4- warm blooded.
blooded.
chambered.
Oviparous Oviparous Oviparous Viviparous or Oviparous.
Rana (frog), Chamelion, Platypus(oviparous)

Columba, Pavo, Ostrich.
Salamander, Hyla Crocodilus, Naja Camel, Dog, Blue whale.
CHAPTER-OS
MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING
PLANTS
Morphology is the branch of biological science that deals with the study of form, size, colour,
structure and relative position of various parts of organisms.
Importance of morphology-
1. Knowledge of morphology is essential for recognition or identification of plants.

2. It gives information about the range of variations found in species.
3. Deficiency and toxicity symptoms are morphological changes that occur in
response to shortage or excess of minerals.
Parts of Flowering Plants-
l.'4--------S t c m
Lk"Af---- Leaf
S.hool
system
Pr r oiom t Root
... Scco
ary ndruy syslcm
rool
• All the flowering plants have roots, stem, leaves, flower and fruits. The underground
parts of flowering plant are the root system and the portion above the
ground forms the shoot system.
The Root
• In Dicotyledons, elongation of radicle forms the primary roots which bears lateral
roots of several orders called secondary roots, tertiary roots, etc.
Primary roots along with lateral roots forms the Tap root system. Example: Mustard,
Gram, etc.
• In monocotyledons, primary root is replaced by large number of roots at its
base of stern to constitute the Fibrous root system. Wheat, rice etc.
• The roots that arise from other parts of plant beside radicle are called adventitious
roots. Example- Grass, Banyan tree, Maize, etc.
• The main function of root system are absorption of water and minerals from soil,
providing proper anchorage to the plant parts and storing reserve food
materials.
Regions of Roots-
• The apex of root is covered by a thimble like structure called root cap, it protect the
tender apex of root while making way through soil.
• Above the root cap is region of meristematic activity having small cells with dense
cytoplasm.
• The part above the region of rneristernatic activity is region of elongation where
cells under go elongation and enlargement to increase the length of root.
• Region of maturation contain root hairs that help in absorption of water and
minerals.
Modification of roots- Roots are modified for storage, nitrogen fixation, aeration and
support.
• Tap root of carrot, turnip and adventitious root of sweet potato get swollen
to store food.
• Prop root of Banyan and Stilt root of maize and sugarcane have supporting root
coming out from lower node of stems.
• In Rhizophora, Pneumatophores help to get oxygen for respiration as it
grows in swampy areas.
F l · by
Tap Toots
A
Conica
;E
Fusiform
A
Napiform
l
... ..C
,, ,,
r,o t
,ar
_...,,,. .,
h
R c sld
1 Tum"p
"'-.._/
The Stem
• It is the ascending part of axis bearing branches, leaves, flowers and fruits. It
develops from Plumule of the embryo.
• Stem bears nodes and internodes. The region of stem where leaves are born are called
nodes and portion between two nodes are called internodes.
• The main function of stem is spreading branches, bearing leaves, flowers and fruits. It
also conducts water and minerals from root to leaves and product of photosynthesis.
• Some stem perform special functions like storage of food, support, protection and
vegetative propagation.
Modification of stems-
• Underground stem of potato, ginger and turmeric are modified to store food. They
also act as organ of perennation in unfavorable conditions.
• Stem tendril help plants to climb as in cucumber, pumpkins, and grapes.
• Axillary buds of stem may modify into woody, straight and pointed thorns as in
Citrus and Bougainvillea.
• Plants of arid regions modify their stem to flattened (Opuntia), fleshy cylindrical
(Euphorbia) having chlorophyll for photosynthesis.
Undergound Stem
M dificat·om
6 Corm
Colocasi a
;i:::
Tube
Potato
A
Bulb
mint, Ginger Onion, Garlic
25e
C h 1 u m '-,I '-,/ '-../
The Leaf
• Leaf is a green, dissimilar exogenous lateral flattened outgrowth which is borne

on the node of a stem or its branches is specialized to perform photosynthesis.
Lsmlm,
la)
ha:u.-
• Leaves originate from shoot apical meristem and are arranged in an acropetal order.
• A typical leaf consists of three parts- Leaf base, Petiole, Lamina. Leaf is
attached with stem by Leaf Base which may bear two small leaf like structure
called stipule.
• Middle prominent vein is called mid vein. Veins provide rigidity to the leaf blade and
act as channel for transport of water and minerals.
• The arrangement of vein and veinlets in the lamina is called venation.
Reticulate venation Parallel venation
1. Veinlets form a network. 1. A network is absent.

2. Veins are irregularly distributed. 2. Veins are parallel to one another.
3. It is present in all Dicotyledons like 3. It is present in Monocotyledons like
Gram, Pea, Beans and Mango etc. Grass, Banana, Rice, etc.
Compound
lseaves Simple Leaves
Pinrnrtely Palmately Compound

oompound Leaves L.@aves
• A leaf having a single or undivided lamina is called Simple leaf. The incisions do not
touch the mid rib. Example- Mango, Guava etc.
• When the incision of lamina reach up to the midrib and breaking it into a
number of leaflets, it is called Compound leaves.
• In a Pinnately compound leaves, a number of leaflets are present on common axis
called rachis. Example- Neem.
• In Palmately compound leaves, the leaflets are attached at common point. Example-
Silk cotton.
• The pattern of arrangement of leaves on the stem or branch is called Phyllotaxy.
• In alternate type of phyllotaxy single leaf arise at each node as in China rose.
• In opposite types of phyllotaxy a pair of leaves arise from each node opposite to
each other as in Guava.
• If more than two leaves arise at a node and form a whorl is called whorled type of
phyllotaxy as in Alstonia.
• Leaves are modified to perform other functions like converted to tendril for climbing
as in Peas and spines for defence in Cactus.
Inflorescence
The arrangement of flowers on the floral axis is termed as inflorescence. Two main types of
inflorescence are racemose and cymose.
Racemose Cymose
1. Main axis terminates in flower having
1. The main axis continuous to grow. limited growth.

2. Flowers are borne laterally in 2. Flowers are borne in a
an acropetal succession. basipetal succession.
3. Example- Radish, Mustard. 3. Example- Jasmine,
Bougainvillea.
The flower
• Flower is the reproductive part of angiospermic plants for sexual means of

reproduction.
• A typical flower has four whorls arranged on a swollen end of stalk or
pedicel called
thalamus. They are Calyx, Corolla, Androecium and Gynoecium.
• When a flower has both androecium and gynoecium, the flower is called
bisexual and flower having either androecium or gynoecium only is called unisexual.
• When flower can be divided into two equal radial halves in any radii passing through
center the symmetry of flower is called actinomorphic (radial symmetry) as
in Mustard, Datura, and Chili.
• When flower can be divided into two similar parts only in one vertical plane it is
zygomorphic as in Pea, Gulrnohar, Cassia etc.
• When Floral appendages are in multiple of 3,4 or 5 they are called
trimerous, tetramerous and pentamerous respectively. Flower with bracts
are called bracteates and without it ebracteate.
• Based on the position of ovary with respect to other floral part on thalamus, flowers
are of following types:
1-fypogynous Perigynous Epigynous
1. Hypogynous flower- Ovary occupies the highest position. The ovary in such case is called
superior. Eg. Mustard, brinjal and china rose.
2. Perigynous flowers-If the gynoecium is situated at the centre and other parts are on the
rim at same height. Ovary is called half-inferior.
3. Epigynous flowers- The margin of thalamus grows to completely cover the ovary. Ovary
is said to be inferior.
Calyx is the outermost whorl of the flower; its members are called sepals. They are generally
green and leafy; protect the flower in bud stage. It may be gamosepalous (sepals united) or
polysepalous (sepals free).
Corolla consists of petals, brightly coloured to attract the insects for pollination. They may
be gamopetalous or polypetalous.
1. The mode of arrangement of sepals or petals in floral bud with respect to the other
members of same whorl is called aestivation. In valvate, the whorls of sepals or
petals touch each other as in Calotropis. In Twisted aestivation, the whorls
overlap each other as in China rose.
2. In Imbricate aestivation, margin overlap each other but not in particular fashion as in
Gulmohur.
3. In pea and bean flowers, there are five petals- the largest (standard) overlaps the two
lateral petals (wings) which in turn overlap two smallest anterior petals (keel). This type
of aestivation is known as vexillary or papilionaceous.
The Androecium
• Androecium represent the male reproductive parts of flower, consists of stamens.

Each stamen consists of filament and anther. Pollen grains are produced in
pollen sac. Sterile stamen is called Stemenode.
• When stamens are attached with petals it is called epipetalous (Brinjal). Stamen may
be free (polyandrous) or may be united in one bundle (monoadelphous), two
bundles (diadelphous), more than two (polyadelphous).
The Gynoecium
• Female reproductive part of flower consists of one or more carpels. Each carpel is
made up of stigma style and ovary.
• When more than one carpel is present, it may be free (apocarpous) as in lotus and
rose or fused together (syncarpous) as in mustard and tomato.
• After fertilisation, ovules change into seeds and ovary mature into fruits.
Placentation
• The arrangement of ovules within the ovary is called placentation.

.....--,..,.
IPlacenta,ti,on
A
Axle
X
P ri al
A
fre Cen, Ba
.A.. .
Cbloorose Dla-n al
M u
s; .. , ,
nA01 v
The fruit
• .,
s'tilr d .
e r
Mature and ripened ovary developed after fertilisation is fruit. If a fruit is
formed without fertilisation of ovary it is called parthenocarpic fruit.
• Fruit consists of seeds and pericarp. Thick and fleshy pericarp is three layered called
epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp.
• Dicotyledonous Seed is made up of a seed coat and an embryo. Embryo is made up

of embryonal axis, radicle and cotyledons.
• Seed coat has two layers outer testa and inner tegmen. Hilum is scar through which
seed is attached to the ovary. Small pore above the hilum is called micropyle.
Monocotyledonous seeds
Akuronr lttyo-
End,mp,,rm
Wlb
• In monocotyledonous seed, outer covering of endosperm separate the embryo by a

proteinous layer called aleurone layer.
• Single cotyledon is called as scutellum having a short axis bearing Plumule and
radicle.
• Plumule and radicle are closed inside sheaths called as coleoptile and coleorhiza
respectively.
SEMI -TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF A

TYPICAL FLOWERING PLANT
The plant is described beginning with its habit, vegetative characters - roots, stem and leaves
and then floral characters inflorescence and flower parts.
The floral formula is represented by some symbols. In the floral formula, Br stands for
bracteate K stands for calyx , C for corolla, P for perianth, A for androecium and G for
Gynoecium. Fusion is indicated by enclosing the figure within bracket and adhesion by a
line drawn above the symbols of the floral parts.
Family Fabaceae-
• This family was earlier known as Papilionoideae. Herbs, shrubs or tree root with root
nodules. Pinnately compound leaves with reticulate venation.
lu " (5, 1
-
Economic importance
Plants belonging to this family are sources of pulses like Gram, Arhar, Bean. Pea etc. and
edible oils like groundnut, soybean, etc.
Family Solanaceae-
• Plant body herbs or shrubs, rarely small trees, commonly known as potato
family.
Leaves simple or pinnately compound. Reticulate venation.
I T.
r uJ
Many of them are source of food (potato, tomato, Brinjal etc.), spices (Chilli) etc.
Family Liliaceae
• Commonly known as Lily family. Monocots, perennial herbs. Leaves

alternate with parallel venation.
• Underground bulbs, corms or rhizomes.
• Flower bisexual, actinomorphic, sepals and petals are absent, having perianth.
f31
It includes ornamental plants (Tulip), Medicine (aloe) and vegetable (colchicine).
CHAPTER-06
ANATOMY OF FLOWERING PLANTS
Anatomy is the study of internal structure of organism. Study of plant anatomy includes
histology- study of organization and structure of tissues. Anatomy helps in knowing the
structural peculiarities of different group of plants and indicates the structural adaptation to
diverse environments.
The tissue
A group of cells having a common origin and usually performing common function
are called tissues.
Plant Tissue
l _
eristematlc T l = - 1 P rm nentTlssu
a. Apical Meristem. Simple Pennanent Compleit Permanent

Tissues Tissue
b. lntercalary meris em.
c. Lateral Merist m
a. P.arenc.hyma a_Xylem
b. Collenchyma b_
c. Sclerenchyma Phloem
• Meristematic tissue is a simple tissue composed of group of similar and immature

cells which can divide and form new cells. The meristem which occurs at tips of roots
and shoots are called apical meristem.
• Intercalary meristem occurs between mature tissues especially in grasses.Both
apical meristems and intercalary meristems are primary meristems because they
appear early in life of a plant and help to form the primary plant body.
• The meristem which occurs on the sides and takes part in increasing girth of the
plants are called Lateral meristem. Intrafascicular cambium in the primary
lateral meristem. Vascular cambium, cork cambium are secondary meristem.
• The cells that have become structurally and functionally specialized and lose the
ability to divide are called permanent tissue. Permanent tissues having all cells
similar in structure and function are called simple permanent tissues and those
having different kinds of cells are called complex tissue.
• Parenchyma is a simple permanent living tissue which is made up of thin-walled
isodiametric cells. Each cell encloses a large central vacuole and peripheral cytoplasm
containing nucleus. They are found in non-woody and soft areas of stem, root, leaves,
fruits and flowers. They store the food and provide turgidity to softer parts of plant.
• Collenchyma consists of cells which are much thickened at corner due to

cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin. Oval, spherical or polygonal often contain
chlorophyll. They provide mechanical support to the growing parts of the plants like
young stem.
Thi k n d corn rn
1- l"rotopla m
• Sclerenchymas are supportive tissue having highly thick walled cells with little or no
protoplasm due to deposition of cellulose or lignin. They are of two types: fibres
and sclereids. They provide mechanical support to mature plant organs to
tolerate bending, shearing, compression etc.
Lum n
1111 k
• ·II wall
Lumen
Till k
ocll wall
1\5(:I rcld
/\(Um:
Complex Tissues- Xylem and phloem constitute the complex tissues in plants and work
together as a unit.
Xylem Phloem
1. It conducts water or sap. 1. Phloem conducts organic food.

2. Xylem is found deep in the plant. 2. It is situated towards the outer side.
3. Xylem provides mechanical strength. 3. It has no mechanical functions.
4. Xylem is made up of vessels, tracheid, 4. Phloem is made up of sieve tube,
xylem fibre and xylem parenchyma. companion cells, phloem parenchyma and
phloem fibres.
• Primary xylem is of two types- protoxylem and metaxylem. In stem, protoxylem

lies in centre and metaxylem towards periphery. This type of primary xylem is called
endarch.
• In roots, protoxylem lies in periphery and metaxylem lies towards the centre. This
type of primary xylem is called exarch.
• In gymnosperms, albuminous cells and sieve cells lack sieve tube and companion
cells.
...-...
Tissue System
_L I :::L.
-
Epidermal Tissue System
Epidermal Tissue System

-
Ground Tissue System
-
Vascular Tissue System
• It forms the outermost covering of whole plant body, which consists of epidermal
cells, stomata, epidermal appendages (trichomes and hairs).

• Epidermis is single layered, parenchymatous with waxy thick layers of
cuticle to prevent water loss.
• Stomata is present in epidermis of leaves. It regulates the transpiration and
gaseous
exchange. In dicots, stomata are bean-shaped having two guard cells closing the
stomata! pore. In monocots, stoma is dumbbell-shaped. Guard cells contain
chloroplasts and help in opening and closing of stomata.
• Guard cells are surrounded by subsidiary cells. The stomata! aperture, guard
cells and the surrounding subsidiary cells are together called stomata!
apparatus _.......--- Ep1dennal
Subsldl.nry
_ u - --1 r- - Chloropl t
tornlilal
pore
Dicots (Bean shaped) Monocots (Dumb-bell shaped)
• Epidermis also contains a number of hairs. Root hairs are unicellular elongation of
epidermal cells. Trichomes are present on stems, which are multicellular,
branched or un-branched preventing water loss due to transpiration.
The ground Tissue System
• All the tissue between epidermis and vascular bundle forms the ground tissues. It
consists of simple permanent tissues. Parenchyma is present in pericycle,
cortex, pith and medullary rays in stem and roots.
• In leaves the mesophyll, chloroplast containing cell, forms the ground tissues.
The Vascular Tissue System
• The vascular system consists of complex tissues, xylem and phloem that together form
vascular bundles.
Vascular Bundles
-
Open Closed
( c a m b i u m between xvi em and phloem) (Cambium absent between xylem and phloem)
-- -
DicotyledonousStem Monocoyeledonous
St,ern
--
• When xylem and phloem within a vascular bundle are arranged in alternate manner
on different radii, the arrangement are called radial as in roots. When xylem and
phloem are situated at the same radius of vascular bundle, it is called conjoint as in
stem and leaves.
Phloom
Radial
Dicotyledonous Root
• The outermost
layer of dicot
root is
epidermis
containing
unicellular
root hairs.
• The cortex
consists of
several layers
of thin-walled
parenchyma
cells.
• The innermost
layer of cortex
is called
endodermis
• Epidermis: is covered with a thin layer of cuticle and may have

Trichomes and stomata.
• Cortex: The cortex is made up of the multiple layers of cells including
hypodermis, middle layer of parenchyma cells and innermost layer called
endodermis.
• Endodermis cells are rich in starch grains and are called the starch sheath.
Pericycle is present on the inner side of endodermis. Layers of radially placed
parenchyma between the vascular bundles are called medullary rays.
• A large number of vascular bundles are arranged in a ring. Each vascular bundle
is conjoint, open. Protoxylem is endarch
Monocotyledonous Stem
• The hypodermis is made up of sclerenchyma. Vascular bundles are conjoint, closed

and scattered. Each vascular bundle is surrounded by a sclerenchymatous bundle
sheath.
• Phloem parenchyma is absent. Water-containing cavities are present within the
vascular bundles.
Dorsiventral (Dicotyledonous) Leaf
• The leaf lamina of a dorsiventral leaf has 3 parts: epidermis, mesophyll and vascular
system.
• The upper epidermis is called adaxial epidermis and lower one is called abaxial
epidermis. More number of stomata are present on the abaxial
epidermis.
• There are two types of cells in the mesophyll: palisade parenchyma and spongy
parenchyma. The palisade parenchyma is placed adaxially.
• The spongy parenchyma is situated below the palisade parenchyma and extends to
the lower epidermis. There are numerous large spaces and air cavities
between the cells of spongy parenchyma.
• Vascular bundles are surrounded by a layer of thick-walled bundle sheath cells.
Isobilateral (Monocotyledonous) Leaf
• Stomata are present on both the surfaces of an isobilateral leaf. The mesophyll is not
differentiated into palisade and spongy parenchyma.
• Some adaxial epidermal cells in grasses are modified into large, empty cells called
bulliform cells. When the bulliform cells absorb water, they become turgid. So the leaf
surface is exposed. During water stress, when the bulliform cells become flaccid, the
leaves curl inwards to minimize water loss.
SECONDARY GROWTH
The increase in girth of a plant body is called secondary growth. The tissues involved in
secondary growth are: vascular cambium and cork cambium.
Vascular Cambium:
In case of young stem vascular cambium is present in patches as a single layer between the
xylem and phloem. It forms a complete ring at a later stage.
Activity of the Cambial Ring:
• The cambial ring becomes active and begins to cut off new cells, both towards the
inner and the outer sides.
• The cells which are cut off towards pith mature into secondary xylem. The cells
which are cut off towards periphery mature into secondary phloem.
• The cambium is more active on the inner side than on the outer. As a result, the
amount of secondary xylem produced is more than secondary phloem. The
primary and secondary phloems get gradually crushed due to the continued
formation and
accumulation of secondary xylem.
• At some places, the cambium forms a narrow band of parenchyma, which passes
through the secondary xylem and the secondary phloem in the radial
directions. These are the secondary medullary rays
Spring wood and autumn wood:
• Cambium is very active during the spring season, but less active during the
winters. Hence, during spring; a large number of xylem elements are formed having
wider vessels. During winter, less xylem elements are formed having narrow
vessels.
• The wood formed during summer is called spring wood. The wood formed during
winter is called autumn wood.
• The two kinds of wood appear as alternate concentric rings in transverse
section of a trunk of a tree. These are called annual rings and provide information
about age of the tree.
Heartwood and sapwood:
• In old trees, the greater part of secondary xylem is dark in colour, hard, and resistant
to attacks by microorganisms and insect. This region is made of dead elements with
highly lignified walls. This wood is called heartwood. The heartwood gives
mechanical support but does not conduct water.
• The peripheral part of the secondary xylem is lightly coloured. This is known
as sapwood. It helps in conduction of water and minerals.
Cork Cambium
• Mmeristematic tissue which develops in the cortex region is called cork cambium or
phellogen.
• The phellogen cuts off cells on both sides. The outer cells differentiate to form cork or
phellem while the inner cells differentiate into secondary cortex or
phelloderm.
• Phellogen, phellem and phelloderm are collectively called periderm.
• Due to activity of the cork cambium, pressure builds up on the remaining layers
peripheral to phellogen. These layers gradually die and fall off.
Lenticels
• At certain regions, the phellogen cuts off closely arranged parenchymatous cells on
the outer side instead of cork cells. These parenchymatous cells soon rupture
the epidermis, forming a lens-shaped openings called lenticels.
• Lenticels permit the exchange of gases between the outer atmosphere
and the internal tissue of the stem.
Secondary Growth in Roots
• The vascular cambium of the dicot root originates from the tissue located just below
the phloem bundles. A portion of pericycle tissue present above the protoxylem forms
a continuous wavy ring. It gradually becomes circular. Rest of the steps are similar as
in dicot stem.
• Secondary growth takes place in sterns and roots of gymnosperms. No secondary
growth occurs in rnonocots.
CBSE Quick Revision Notes

CBSE Class-11 Biology
CHAPTER-07
STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION IN ANIMALS
In multicellular organism a group of similar cells along with intercellular substances

perform a specific function. Such organization is called tissue.
Animal_.Tissues I
i I I I
Epithelial Connective 1
Muscular Neural
1
Epithelial Tissue: This tissue provides covering or lining for some part of the body. Cells are
compactly packed without intercellular space.
• Simple epithelium is composed of single layer of cells and function as lining of

body cavities, ducts and tubes.
• The compound epithelium consists of two or more than two layers of cells and has
protective function.
• The squamous epithelium is made up of single layer of flattened cells with irregular
boundaries. They are present in lining of blood vessels, air sacs oflungs.
• Cuboidal epithelium is made up of single layered cube-like cells and found in
ducts of glands and tubular part of nephron of kidney for absorption and secretion.
• Columnar epitheliums are made up of tall and slender cells. The nuclei are
located at the base. Free surface may have microvilli found in lining of stomach and
intestine. The ciliated one are called as ciliated epithelium.
• Columnar and cuboidal epithelium specialized for secretion are known as glandular
epithelium, which may be unicellular as in goblet cells of alimentary canal or
multicellular as in salivary gland.
Endocrine glands Exocrine glands
1. Secretes enzymes, milk, mucus,

1. Exocrine gland secretes hormones.
saliva etc.
2. Products are directly released at target
2. Products are released through
sites through blood.
ducts.
• Main function of compound epithelium tissue is to provide protection against

chemical and mechanical stress. They cover the dry surface of skin, moist surface of
buccal cavity, etc.
• Epithelial cells are held together by intercellular material to form
specialized junction.
Ep,ithelial Junctions
Tight junctions Adhering J nctions Gap Junctions

(perform c:e·men ·ng (Facilatethe cells. o
( help to.step leaking)
of neighbouring cells) c:ommunic:aie)
'-/ '-/ '-/
Connective Tissues: They are most abundant and widely distributed tissues which link and
support the other tissues. All connective tissues except blood cells, secrete fibres of structural
protein called collagen or elastin to provide elasticity and flexibility.
• Loose Connective Tissues contain cells and fibres loosely arranged in semi-fluid
ground substance. It includes areolar tissue and adipose tissue.
Connective Tissues
l oose Dense Spect Used. Co

,Connective Tissues Connecti e issues nective
'-.._/ Tissues
Areolar Connective Tissue Adipose Connective Tissue
1. It contains fibroblast, macrophages and 1. Fibroblast, macrophages and mast cells

mast cells. are absent.
2. It acts as support framework for 2. The cells are specialized to store fats
epithelium. beneath the skin.
• Dense connective Tissue contains fibres and fibroblast compactly packed. The
orientation of fibres may be regular or irregular pattern.
• In dense regular connective tissues collagen fibres are present in rows between
parallel bundles of fibres as in tendons and ligaments.
Tendon Ligament
1. Tendon connects bones to skeletal

1. Ligament connects one bone to another bone.
muscles.
2. It is made up of yellow elastic tissue with
2. It is made up of white fibrous tough
collagen fibres.
tissue.
• Cartilage, bones and blood are specialized connective tissue.
Cartilage Bone
1. They are soft skeletal tissue. 1. Bones are hard skeletal tissue.
2. Chondriocyctes are enclosed in small 2. They are rich in Calcium salt and collagen
cavities with matrix. fibres.
3. They are present in tips of nose, outer 3. They form the skeletal framework of
ear, between vertebral bones. vertebrates like limbs, legs, etc.
• Blood is fluid connective tissue containing plasma, red blood cells, white blood
cells and platelets. It helps in transportation of various substances between
organs.
Muscle Tissue
• Each muscle is made up of long cylindrical fibres arranged parallel to each other.
Fibres are composed of fine fibrils called myofibrils. Muscle fibres contract and relax
in response to stimulation.
Smonl.h.
mu!i-
1:•k
f.lbiera
Skeletal Smooth Cardiac
1. They are also known as 1. They are known as 1. They are known as heart
striated, voluntary unstriated or muscles and involuntary in
4 / 11
Material Downloaded From SUPERCOP
muscles. involuntary muscles. nature.

2. Multinucleated with light 2. They are uninucleate 2. Uninucleate with faint light
and dark bands. without bands. and dark bands.
3. They are attached with 3. They are present in 3. They are present in wall of
bones. vessels, oesophagus. heart.
4. They are fibrous and un- 4. They are fibrous and un- 4. They are fibrous and
branched, cylindrical in branched, spindle branched, cylindrical in
shape. shaped. shape.
Neural Tissue
• The unit of neural system is neuron. Neuroglial cell protects and supports the neuron.
• When neuron get stimulated, electrical impulses are generated that travel along the
plasma membrane (axon).
The tissues organize to form organs which in turn associate to form organ system in
multicellular organisms.
Earthworm
• Earthworm is reddish brown terrestrial invertebrate that lives in upper layer

of moist soil. The common Indian earthworms are Pheretima and Lumbricus.
• Earthworms have long cylindrical body divided into segments called
metameres. The ventral surface contain genital pore and dorsal surface contain mid
dorsal line.
• First body segment is called peristomium which contain mouth. 14-16 segments are
tflurn
• Single genital pore is present on mid ventral line of 14th segments. A pair of
male genital pore is present on 18th segment on ventro-lateral side.
• All the segment except 1st, last and clitellum contain S-shaped setae for
locomotion.
• Alimentary canal is straight tube from 1st to last segment having, buccal cavity,
muscular pharynx, oesophagus that leads to gizzards, which help in grinding the soil
particles and decaying leaves. Stomach and small intestine leads to anus.
• Between 26-35 segments, the intestine has an internal median fold called typhlosole.
This increases the effective area of absorption in the intestine.
• Closed vascular system consists of heart, blood vessels and capillaries. Blood glands
are present on the 4th, 5th and 6th segments. They produce blood
cells and haemoglobin which is dissolved in blood plasma.
• Earthworms lack respiratory organs and respire through moist skin.
• Excretory organs is coiled segmental tubules called nephridia. There are three types
of nephridia: Septal nephridia, integumentary nephridia and pharyngeal
nephridia.
• Nervous system is represented by ganglia arranged segmentwise on the
ventral paired nerve cord. The nerve cord in the anterior region (3rd and 4th
segments) bifurcates and joins the cerebral ganglia dorsally to form a nerve
ring.
• Earthworm is hermaphrodite. Two pairs of testis is present in 10th and 11th segment.
Prostrate and spermatic duct open to surface as male genital pore on 18th
segment.
• One pair of ovaries is attached to the intersegmental septum of 12th and 13th
segments. Female genital pore open on ventral side of 14th segment. Mutual exchange
XIof– XII
sperms takes
SCIENCE place
NEET during
/ JEE / CET mating.
/ BOARD (PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY, BIOLOGY, MATHEMATICS)
• Mature sperms and egg cells along with nutritive materials are deposited in cocoon in
the soil where fertilisation takes place.
• Earthworms are known as friends of farmer because they make burrows in soil to
make it porous for respiration and root penetration. Earth worms are also used for
vermicomposting and as bait in game fishing.
Cockroach(Periplaneta americana)
• Cockroaches are nocturnal omnivorous organisms that lives in damp places

everywhere. The body of cockroach is segmented and divisible into head, thorax and
abdomen. The body is covered by hard chitinous exoskeleton.
• Head is triangular in shape formed by fusion of six segments to show flexibility.

Head bears compound eyes. Antenna attached on head help in monitoring the
environment.
• Thorax consists of three parts- prothorax, mesothorax and metathorax.
Forewings and hind wings are attached with thorax. Abdomen consists of 10
segments.
Male Cockroach Female Cockroach
1. The abdomen is long and narrow. 1. The abdomen is short and broad.
2. Brood pouch is absent. 2. Brood pouch is present.
3. Male have longer antenna. 3. Female have shorter antennae.
4. Anal styles are present. 4. Anal styles are absent.
Digestive System of Cockroach-
• Alimentary canal is divided into foregut, midgut and hindgut. Food is stored in
crop. Gizzard help in grinding the food particles.
• At the junction of m.idgut and hindgut yellow coloured filamentous Malpighian

tubules are present which help in excretion.
• Blood vascular system is open type having poorly developed blood vessels.
The haemolymph is made of colourless plasma and haemocytes.
• Respiratory system consists of network of trachea which open through 10
pairs of
spiracles on lateral side.

• The nervous system of cockroach consists of a series of fused, segmentally arranged
ganglia joined by paired longitudinal connectives on the ventral side. Three ganglia
lie in the thorax, and six in the abdomen. The nervous system of cockroach is spread
throughout the body.
• Each compound eye of cockroach consists of about 2000 hexagonal ommatidia.
With the help of several ommatidia, a cockroach can receive several images of an
object. This kind of vision is known as mosaic vision with more sensitivity but less
resolution,
• Cockroaches are dioecious. Male reproductive system consists of a pair of testes
one lying on each lateral side in 4th-6th abdominal segments. The female
reproductive
system consists of two large ovaries situated on 2nd -6th abdominal segments.
'l'r:!llclc
Sfn,i:lalbam
Male reproductive system / Female reproductive system
• The fertilized eggs are encased in capsule called ootheacea. 9 to 10 ootheace are
produced by each female.
• Cockroaches are pests and destroys the food, contaminate with smelly excreta.
Frog (Rana tigrina)
Frogs are cold-blooded organism having ability to change colours to hide from enemies. Body
is divisible into head and trunk, bulged eyes covered by nictitating membrane. Male frog is
different from female having vocal sacs and copulatory pad on first digit of forelimb.
• Digestive system consists of alimentary canal and digestive glands.
• Digestion starts in stomach and final digestion occurs in small intestine.

Digested food is absorbed by villi and microvilli present in the inner wall of small
intestine.
• Skin acts as aquatic respiratory organs (cutaneous respiration). On lands skin, buccal
cavity and lungs acts as respiratory organs.
• The vascular system of frog is well-developed closed type. Heart is 3-
chambered. Blood consist of plasma, RBC, WBC and Platelets.
• Frogs have a lymphatic system consisting of lymph, lymph channels and lymph
nodes.
• The elimination of nitrogenous wastes is carried out by a well developed excretory
system. The excretory system consists of a pair of kidneys, ureters, cloaca and urinary
bladder. The frog excretes urea and thus is a ureotelic animal.
• The system for control and coordination is highly evolved in the frog. It
includes both neural system and endocrine glands
• Frogs have well organised male and female reproductive systems. Male reproductive
organs consist of a pair of yellowish ovoid testes, which are found adhered to
the upper part of kidneys by mesorchium.
The female reproductive organs include a pair of ovaries which are situated
near kidneys.
• Fertilisation is external and takes place in water. Development involves a
larval stage
called tadpole. Tadpole undergoes metamorphosis to form the adult.
Reproductive systems of frog-
Male/ Female
CHAPTER-OB
CELL: STRUCTURE AND
FUNCTIONS
• Study of form, structure, and composition of cell is

called cytology.
• Cell is the structural and functional unit of life. In unicellular organism (amoeba,
paramecium, yeast, bacteria) single cell performs all the essential functions
of life.
• In multicellular organism, different kinds of tissues perform different function and
have division of labour.
• Anton Von Leeuwenhoek first saw and described a live cell. Robert Brown later
discovered the nucleus.
• Metthias Schleiden and Theodore Schwann( 1938) proposed the cell theory
which was later modified by Rudolf Virchow(1855)-
1. All living organisms are composed of cells and products of cells.

2. All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells
1. Membrane bound nucleus is absent. 1. Membrane bound nucleus is present.

2. Cells are smaller in size. 2. Cells are larger in size.
3. Single chromosome is present. 3. More than one chromosome is present.
4. Membrane bound organelles are absent. 4. Membrane bound organelles are present.
Shape and size of cells varies greatly according to their position and function. Mycoplasma is
the smallest cell and largest isolated cell is the ostrich egg. The shape of cell may be cuboid,
columnar, polygonal, thread like or irregular.
Prokaryotic Cells
• Prokaryotic cells are represented by Bacteria, Blue green algae, Mycoplasma and
PPLO. They multiply rapidly and vary in size greatly.
• Bacterial cells may be Bacillus (rod shaped), Coccus (spherical), Vibrio

(commashaped) and Spirillum (spiral).
• All prokaryotic cells have cell wall surrounding the cell membrane except in
Mycoplasma. Genetic material is naked.
• The plasmid DNA, in some bacteria provides some special features like resistance to
antibiotics.
• Cell organelles like Mitochondria, Golgi bodies etc. are absent in prokaryotes.
A specialized differentiated cell membrane called Mesosome is the characteristic
of prokaryotes.
• In bacterial cell a chemically complex cell envelope is present, which consist of

three layers. The outermost is Glycocalyx, middle one cell wall and inner innermost is
the cell membrane.
• Glycocalyax may be as loose sheath in some bacteria called slime layer. In some
other bacteria Glycocalyx may be thick and tough called capsule.
• Plasma membrane is semi-permeable having mesosome in the form of
vesicles, tubules and lamellae. They help in cell wall formation, DNA replication
and distribution to daughter cells.
• Motile bacterial cell contain flagella, which is composed of filament, hook and
basal
body. Pili and fimbriae are the other surface structures that help the bacteria to
attach with host and other substances.
• In prokaryotes, ribosome are attached with cell membrane having two sub-units - SOS
and 30S to form together 70S prokaryotic ribosomes.
• Ribosomes are site of protein synthesis. Ribosomes attached with mRNA to form a
chain are called polyribosomes.
• Reserved materials in prokaryotic cells are present in cytoplasm as cell inclusion
bodies, which may contain phosphate, granules, glycogen granules etc.
• Gas vacuoles are found in blue green algae and purple and green photosynthetic
bacteria.
Eukaryotic Cell
• Eukaryotic cells are present in Protista, plants, Animals and Fungi. Cytoplasm is
divided into compartments due to presence of membrane bounded
organelles.
• The cells contain well organized nucleus with nuclear membrane. The genetic
materials are arranged in chromosomes.
• Plants cells differ in having cell wall, plastids and large central vacuole as compared
to animal cells. Animal cells have centrioles, which are absent in plant cells.
Plant cell
N nr
envelope
Nucl u
(H1A.IJ"IOl1
Rough
enllopla@mc
1..-Licul11m
lb)
Animal cell
• Cell membrane is composed of lipids that are arranged in bilayer. The lipid
component is mainly composed of phosphoglycerides. Later it was found that protein
is also present in cell membrane. Ratio of protein and lipids varies in different cells.
• Membrane protein may be integral or peripheral. Integral protein remains buried in
membrane but peripheral protein lies on the surface.
• Singer and Nicholson (1972) proposed fluid mosaic model. According to this model
the quasi-fluid nature of lipid enables lateral movement of protein within the
bilayer of lipids.
Suflru' Protel
n
• The main function of plasma membrane is the transport of molecules across it.
Active Transport Passive Transport
1. The transport involves an expenditure of 1. The cells do not spend energy in passive
energy by the cells. transport.
2. It occurs against the concentration 2. This transport is always along the
gradient. concentration gradient.
3. It is a rapid process. 3. It is comparatively slow process.
• The movement of water from higher concentration to lower concentration

by diffusion is called osmosis.
• Cell wall is present in plant cells and fungi. Algae have cell wall made up of
cellulose,
galactans and minerals like calcium carbonate. In other plants it consists of cellulose,
hemicellulose, pectin and proteins.
• Primary cell wall of young plant is capable of growth, which diminish in mature
cells. Secondary cell wall is formed on inner side of the cells.
• Plasmodesmata connects the cytoplasm of neighboring cells.
• Endomembrane system of cell includes endoplasmic reticulum, golgi
complex, lysosomes and vacuoles.
• Endoplasmic Reticulum are the tubular structure scattered in the cytoplasm.
1. Rough endoplasmic reticulum bears ribosomes on its surface. RER is involved in

protein synthesis and secretion.
2. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum does not bear ribosomes on its surface. SER is involved
in lipid synthesis and steroidal hormones.
• Golgi apparatus was first observed by Camillo Golgi in 1898 near nucleus.
They consist of many flat, disc-shaped sacs or cisternae stacked parallel to
each other.
• Golgi apparatus performs the function of packaging of materials and its
transportation. A number of protein synthesized by ribosomes are modified in
cisternae of golgi apparatus. Golgi apparatus is the site for synthesis of Glycoprotiens
and glycolipids.
• Lysosomes are membrane bound vesicular structures formed by the process of

packaging in the Golgi apparatus. They are rich in hydrolytic enzymes- lipase,
protease, carbohydrases active at acidic PH. These enzymes are capable of
digesting carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids.
• Vacuoles are membrane bound space found in cytoplasm containing water, sap and
excretory product. They are bound by single membrane. They form contractile
vacuole and food vacuole in many organisms.
• Mitochondria is double membrane bound structure with the outer membrane
and inner membrane dividing its lumen in two compartments. The inner
membrane forms a number of infoldings called cristae towards the matrix.
Ouler
membrane lnler•membnme
• Two membranes have their own specific enzyme.

• Mitochondria are sites for aerobic respiration. They produce cellular energy in form
of ATP so, they are called power house of the cells. The matrix of mitochondria
also
contain circular DNA molecules, a few RNA molecules, ribosomes and components
of protein synthesis.
• Plastids are found in plant cells and in Euglenoids.
-
Plastids
4t
A
L ucoplast
(contain chlorophyll and (contain carotene and
1Ca11 hophylls)
(colaurl ss.pl 5tids)
"-._/
• Chloroplast contains chlorophyll that traps solar energy for photosynthesis.

Chromoplast provides yellow, orange and red colours to different parts of plants.
• Leucoplasts are colourless plastids that store food, amyloplasts (carbohydrates),
elaioplasts (oils) and aleuroplasts (proteins).
• Chloroplasts are double membrane structures. The space limited by inner
membrane is called stroma. Thylakoids are present in stroma as stacks like the piles
of coins called grana.
ylako
d
troma
J.amclla
.
• Strama contain enzymes for synthesis of protein and carbohydrates. Double strand
circular DNA and ribosomes are also present in stroma.
• Eukaryotic cells have 80S ribosomes. They have granuler structure with
two subunits.
• Centrosome is an organelles containing two cylindrical structures called
centrioles. Each centrioles is made up of 9 fibrils of tubulin protein. Central part of
centriole is called hub and peripheral fibrils are called spokes .
• Nucleus has highly extended, elaborate nucleoprotein fibres called chromatin,
nuclear matrix and nucleoli. The outer membrane is continuous with endoplasmic
reticulum and bears ribosomes.
• The chromatin materials change into chromosome during active cell division. It
consists of DNA and histone proteins.
• Every chromosome has a primary constriction or the centromere, on the sides of
which disc shaped kinetochores are present.
• On the basis of position of centromere chromosomes are of following

types-
Some chromosomes have non-staining secondary constriction at certain location. This

gives a small fragment called satellite.
CHAPTER-09
BIOMOLECULES
Chemicals or molecules present in the living organism are known as biomolecules.

Biomolecules are divided into two types- inorganic and organic.
Inorganic biomolecules includes minerals, gases and water and organic biomolecules
includes carbohydrates, fats, proteins, nucleic acids, vitamins, etc.
Different biomolecules can be classified as aldehyde, ketones and aromatic
compounds as chemical forms. The amino acids, nucleotides and fatty acids can be
classified as biochemical forms.
Except lipids, macromolecules are formed by polymerization of sub-units called

monomers.
Proteins are polymers of amino acids. Amino acids are linked by peptide bond
formed by dehydration between COOH group of one amino acids and NH3 group of
next with the removal of H2O.
In nucleic acids, the phosphate molecules links 3’ C of sugar of one nucleoside to the 5’
C of sugar of next nucleosides releasing two water molecules to form 3’-5’
phosphodiester bond.
In polysaccharides, the mono-saccharides are linked by glycosidic bonds formed by
dehydration between two carbon atoms of two adjacent monosaccharides.
Carbohydrates (Polysaccharides)
Polysaccharides are long chain of sugar containing different monosaccharaides as a

building block.
Starch is present in plants as store house of energy. It forms helical secondary
structure. It can hold the I2 molecules in the helical structure.
Cellulose molecules contain glucose molecules joined together by 1-4 β

linkage. It is
the most abundant organic molecules on earth.
Glycogen is called animal starch as it is the reserve food materials for animals,
bacteria and fungi. In this, glucose molecules are arranged in highly branched bush
like chain having two types of linkage 1-4 α in straight chain and 1-6 linkage in
branching.
Proteins are polypeptide chains made up of amino acids. There are 20 types of amino acids
joined together by peptide bond between amino and carboxylic group. There are two kinds
of amino acids-
1. Essential amino acids are obtained by living organism along with food.
2. Non-essential amino acids can be prepared by our body from raw materials.
The main functions of protein in living cell are
1. Transport of nutrient across the membrane.

2. Fight infectious organisms.
3. Produce enzyme and proteins.
Collagen is the most abundant protein in animal world.
Primary structure of protein is the basic structure of protein in which a number of

polypeptides are involved having sequence of amino acids. The first amino acid of
sequence is called N-terminal amino acid and last amino acid of peptide chain is
called C-terminal amino acid.
Secondary structure protein threads forms helix. There are three types of secondary
structure- α helix, β pleated and collagen. In α helix, the polypeptide chain is coiled
spirally in right handed manner.
In β pleated secondary proteins two or more polypeptide chains are interconnected
by hydrogen bonds. In collagen there are three strands or polypeptides coiled around
one another by hydrogen bonds.
In Tertiary structure long protein chain is folded upon itself like a hollow woollen
ball to give three dimensional view of protein.
(a) secondary structure (b) Tertiary structure
In Quaternary structure each polypeptide develops its own tertiary structure and
function as subunit of protein. Eg. Hemoglobin. In adult human hemoglobin 4 sub-
units are involved. The two subunits are of α type and two subunits of β types.
Nucleic Acid: Nucleic acids are polynucleotides. A nucleic acid has three chemically distinct
components- heterocyclic compound ( nitrogenous base), polysaccharides ( ribose/ deoxy-
ribose sugar) and phosphate or phosphoric acid.
The sugar found in nucleic acid is either ribose or deoxyribose. Nucleic acid
containing deoxyribose sugar is called DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) and those
containing ribose sugars are called RNA (Ribonucleic acid).
Biomolecules are constantly being changed into some other biomolecules and also
made from other biomolecules. This breaking and making is through chemical
process called metabolism.
In living organism, all the metabolic reactions are enzyme catalyzed. Catalysts are
those substances that alter the rate of reaction. The protein with catalytic power is
called enzyme.
Metabolic Basis for living organism
The metabolic pathways that lead to more complex structure from simpler structure
are called biosynthetic or anabolic pathways and those pathways that lead to simpler
structure from complex structure are called catabolic pathways.
Photosynthesis and protein synthesis are example of anabolic pathway. Respiration
and digestion are examples of catabolic pathway.
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the most important form of energy currency in living
world.
All living organism exist in steady state characterized by concentration of each of the
metabolites. The living state is a non-equilibrium steady state to be able to perform
work.
Enzymes
Enzymes are commonly proteinaceous substances which are capable of catalysing
chemical reactions of biological origin without themselves undergoing any change.

They are commonly called as biocatalysts.
The nucleic acids that behave like enzymes are called ribozymes.
The tertiary structure of protein/Enzyme has pockets or crevice into which substrate
fit to form ES complex.
The formation of the ES complex is essential for catalysis.
E+S ES →EP →E + P
The structure of substrate gets transformed into the structure of product through
formation of transient state structure.
The major difference between inorganic and organic catalyst is inorganic catalyst
works effectively at high temperature and pressure but enzyme get damaged at high
temperature.
The external energy required to start a chemical reaction is called activation energy.
Factors influencing Enzyme Activity
1. Temperature- An enzyme is active within a narrow range of temperature. Temperature

ate which enzyme is most active is called optimum temperature. The enzyme activity
decrease above and below this temperature.
2. pH – every enzymes has an optimum pH at which it is maximum active. Most of

the intracellular enzymes work at neutral pH.
3. Concentration of Substrate- increase in substrate concentration increases the rate of

reaction due to occupation of more active sites by substrate.
Competitive Inhibitor- when the molecular structure of inhibitor resembles the substrate, it
inhibits the function of enzymes.
Enzymes are classified as
1. Oxidoreductases/Dehydrogenases-
S reduced + S' oxidised S oxidised + S' reduced
2. Transferases
S - G + S' S + S' - G
3. Hydrolases catalyses the hydrolysis of peptide, ester, glycosidic bonds et
4. Lyases remove the groups from substrate.
5. Isomerases-inter conversion of optical, geometrical or positional isomers.
6. Ligases – catalyses the linking together of two compounds.
Co-factors are the non-protein constituent of an enzyme which make the enzyme more
catalytically active. The protein portions of enzyme are called apoenzyme.
Prosthetic groups are organic compounds and are tightly bound to the apoenzyme. For
example, in peroxidase and catalase, which catalyze the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide,
haem is the prosthetic group
The essential chemical components of any coenzymes are vitamins. Example, coenzyme NAD
and NADP contain the vitamin niacin
CHAPTER-10
CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION
• The sequence of events by which a cell duplicates its genome, synthesizes the other
constituents of cells and eventually divides into two daughter cells is called
cell cycle.
• DNA synthesis occurs in one specific stage of cell division but distribution of
chromosome in cells occurs in complex series of events during cell
division.
Phases of Cell cycle
Human cell divides once in approximately 24 hours, which may vary in different organisms.
In yeasts it takes about 90 minutes to complete the cell division process.
Cell cycle is divided into two basic phases-
1. Interphase- it is the phase between two successive M phases. Interphase lasts for 95% of
a cell cycle. This phase is called as resting phase but during this period the cells prepare
itself for nuclear division by cell growth.
2. M Phase- when the actual cell division or mitosis occurs. It starts with karyokinesis
(nuclear division) or duplication of chromosome and end with cytokinesis or division
of cell matrix (cytoplasm division).
The interphase is divided into three further phases:
• Gl phase represents the interval between mitosis and initiation of DNA replication.
Cell is continuously active and grows in size.
-
_r:
fnte
I _j_
-
G1p,hase(Ga
p
rpba-
S phase
(Synthesils)
2 pJ1ase
( Capi}
• During synthesis phase, replication or synthesis of DNA takes place and amount
of DNA get doubles per cell.
• During G2 phase protein is synthesized in preparation for mitosis.
• In adult animals, some cells do not divide or may divide occasionally. These cells
do not divide further and exits the Gl phase to enter an inactive stage called
Quiescent Stage (GO) of cell cycle.
• In animals mitotic division is present in only somatic diploid cells but in plants it is
seen in both haploid and diploid cells.
• Mitosis cell division is also known as equational division because the numbers
of chromosome remain same in parental and progeny cells.
Mltosi;
I
) - - - - - l
....
.
Prophase M-etaphas.e
- Anaphase Telopha.se
• Prophase is the first phase of mitosis followed by G2 phase. It involves

following events-
1. Initiation of condensation of chromosomal materials.

2. Movement of centrioles towards opposite poles of the cell.
3. At the end of prophase, endoplasmic reticulum, nuclear membrane, Golgi
complex disappears.
P.roph3!!C
• Metaphase starts with complete disappearance of nuclear membrane.

The most suitable stage for study of morphology of chromosomes. It involves
1. Condensation of chromosomal materials in to compact and distinct chromosomes made

up of two sister chromatids attached with spindle fibres with kinetochores.
2. Chromosomes arrange at centre of cell called metaphase plate.
• Anaphase involves following steps:
1. Splitting of each chromosome at centromere into two sister chromatids.

2. Two chromatids start moving towards opposite poles.
pl
• Telophase is the last stage of mitosis which involves
1. Chromosomes reach at opposite poles and loose its identity as discrete unit.
2. Nuclear membrane reassembles around the chromosome clusters.
3. Nucleolus, Golgi complex and ER reappear.
T lop
• Cytokinesis is the division of cytoplasm of a cell after karyokinesis

(division of chromosome) into two daughter cells. In animal cells, appearance of
furrows in plasma membrane that deepens gradually and joins to divide
cytoplasm into two parts.
• In plant cells, wall formation starts at the centre and grows outwards to meet
lateral walls. The formation of cell wall begins with formation of cell plate.
Significance of Mitosis
1. Mitosis produces diploid daughter cells with identical genetic complement.

2. It helps in repair of cells, especially in lining of gut and blood cells.
3. Meristematic division in apical and lateral cambium results in continuous growth of
plants.
Meiosis- The cell division that reduces the number of chromosome into half and results in
the production of haploid daughter cells is called meiosis. It helps in production of haploid
phase in the life cycle of sexually reproducing organism. It involves following events.
4. Two sequential cycles of nuclear and cell division called meiosis I and meiosis II but
single cycle of DNA replication.
5. It involves pairing of homologous chromosome and recombination of them.
6. Four haploid cells are formed at the end of meiosis II.
Meiosis I Meiosis II
Prophase I Prophase II
Metaphase I Metaphase II
Anaphase I Anaphase II
Telophase I Telophase II
Leptote . zygotene. Panchyte·.

e Diakenesis
• During Leptotene, the chromosome becomes distinct and visible under microscope.
Compaction of chromosome continues throughout the leptotene phase.
• During Zygotene stage, chromosomes start pairing together (synapsis). The paired
chromosomes are called homologous chromosome. Synaptonemal complex formed
by a pair of homologous chromosome is called bivalent or a tetrad.
• During Pachytene stage, crossing over between non-sister chromatids of homologous
chromosome occurs for exchange of genetic materials. The crossing over is
enzyme - mediated process which involves enzyme recombinase.
• Diplotene is recognized by dissolution of synaptonemal complex and
tendency to separation of bivalent except at the site of crossing over. This forms
an X like structure called chiasmata.
• Diakenesis is marked by terminalisation of chiasmata. The nuclear membrane
breaks and nucleolus disappear.
• In metaphase I the bivalent chromosome align at equatorial plate and
microtubules from the opposite poles of the spindle get attached to the pair of
homologous chromosomes.
• Anaphase I - homologous chromosome separate but sister chromatids remain

attached at centromere.
• During Telophase I, nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappears and

cytokinesis follows. This is called as diad of the cells.
• The stage between two meiotic divisions is called interkinesis and it is short lived
that follows Prophase IL
Meiosis II
• It is initiated immediately after cytokinesis before chromosome gets elongated.

• In prophase II, nuclear membrane disappears and chromosome becomes compact.
• At metaphase II stage, the chromosomes align at equator and microtubules
attach with kinetochores of sister chromatids.
• Anaphase II start with splitting of centromere of each chromosome to move towards
opposite poles.
Propb ·e .n
• lop
• Meiosis ends with Telophase II in which two groups of chromosomes get enclosed
by nuclear membrane followed by cytokinesis to form tetrad of cells (four haploid
daughter cells).
Significance of meiosis-
1. Meiosis forms the gametes that are essential for sexual reproduction.
2. Crossing over introduces new recombination of traits.
3. Helps in maintenance of chromosome number of sexually reproducing organism.
4. Provides evidence of basic relationship of organisms.
Difference between Mitosis and meiosis
Mitosis Meiosis
1. Takes place in reproductive cells.

1. Takes place in the somatic cells.
2. It is a double division which produces
2. It is a single division which produces two
four cells.
cells.
3. Only diploid cells undergo meiosis
3. Haploid and diploid both kind of cells may
cell division.
undergo mitosis. 4. Crossing over takes place.
4. Crossing over absent.
5. Pairing of homologous chromosome
5. Pairing of chromosome does not occur.
occurs.
CHAPTER-13
PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN IDGHER PLANTS
Photosynthesis is a physico-chemical process by which green plants use light energy to drive
the synthesis of organic compounds. It is an enzyme regulated anabolic process.
• Photosynthesis is the basis of life on earth because it is the primary source of all
food on earth and it is responsible for release of 02 in the atmosphere.
• Chlorophyll, light and CO2 is required for photosynthesis. It occurs only
in green part of leaves and in presence of light.
Early Experiments
• Joseph Priestley in 1770, on the basis of his experiments showed the essential role of
air in growth of green plants. A mouse kept in closed space could get
suffocated and die but if a mint plant is kept in bell jar neither candle will
extinguish nor will the mouse die. He concluded that foul air produced by animal
is converted into pure air by plants. Priestley discovered Oxygen gas in
1774.
• Julius Von Sachs in 1854 shows that green part in plants produces glucose which is
stored as starch. Starch is the first visible product of photosynthesis.
• T.W.Engelmann (1843-1909) used prism to split light into its components and then
illuminated Cladophora (an algae) placed in a suspension of aerobic bacteria.
He
found that bacteria accumulated in blue and red light of the split spectrum. He thus
discovered the effect of different wavelength of light on photosynthesis (action
spectrum).
• Cornelius Van Neil (1897-1985) on the basis of studies with purple and green
sulphur bacteria showed that photosynthesis is a light dependent reaction in which
hydrogen from an oxidisable compound reduces CO2 to form sugar.
In green sulphur bacteria, when H2 S , instead of H20 was used as hydrogen donor, no
02 was evolved. He inferred that 02 evolved by green plants comes from H20 but not
from C 02 as thought earlier.
Where Does Photosynthesis Takes Place?
• Chloroplasts are green plastids which function as the site of photosynthesis in

eukaryotic photoautotrophs. Inside the leaves, chloroplast is generally present in
mesophyll cells along their walls.
• Within the chloroplast there is a membranous system consisting of grana, the
stroma lamellae and the fluid stroma.
- - = = = = : : : - - - - - - - - - D l ' 1 t e r membrane,
= - - - - - I n n e r m mbrane
Grana
--s t ro m a
Rlbow
m
• The membrane system is responsible for synthesizing light energy for the synthesis
of ATP and NADPH. In stroma enzymatic reactions incorporate CO2 in plants leading
to synthesis of sugar.
• The reaction in which light energy is absorbed by grana to synthesis ATP and
NADPH is called light reaction. The later part of photosynthesis in which CO2 is
reduced to sugar, light is not necessary and is called dark reaction.
Pigments involved in Photosynthesis - Chromatographic separation of leaf pigments are as

follows-
Photosynthetic
Pigments
- - - - - 1
Chlorophyll a Carotenoids
Chlorophyll b Xanthophylls
fbrigh or blue (yellow or
green)
,yellow green), .... (yellow)
yellow-orange
.
Maximum absorption by chlorophyll a occurs in blue and red regions having higher rate
of photosynthesis. So, chlorophyll a is the chief pigment.
• Other thylakoid pigments like chlorophyll b, xanthophyll and carotenoids

are called accessary pigments that absorb light and transfer energy to chlorophyll
a and protect them from photo-oxidation.
Light reaction
• Light reaction(photochemical phase) includes:
1. Light absorption
2. Water splitting
3. Oxygen release
4. Formation of high energy chemical intermediates (ATP and NADPH).
• The pigments are organized into two discrete LHC( light harvesting complex) within
photosystem I and photosystem II.
• LHC are made up of hundreds of pigments molecules containing all
pigments except single chlorophyll a molecules in each PS.
.,.........._Pi meJ:Jl
mol
ul'
• The pigments in photosystem I and photosystem II absorbs the lights of different

wavelength. Single chlorophyll a molecule makes the reaction centre. In
PS I reaction centre has highest peak at 700nm, hence called P700. And PS II
reaction centre has highest peak at 680 nm, so called P680.
The Electron Transport System
• Reaction centre of photosystem II absorbs light of 680 nm in red region and causing
electron to become excited. These electrons are picked by an electron
acceptor which passes to electron transport system consisting of
cytochromes.
UI
2 2H I I
• Electrons are passed down the electron transport chain and then to the pigment of
PS I.
• Electron in the PSI also get excited due to light of wavelength 700nm and
are transferred to another accepter molecule having a greater redox
potential.
• When electron passes in downhill direction, energy is released. This is used to reduce
the ADP to ATP and NADP+ to NADPH. The whole scheme of transfer of electron
is
called Z-scheme due to its shape.

• Photolysis of water release electrons that provide electron to PS IL Oxygen is
also released during this process.
• Difference between cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation
Cyclic photophosphorylation Non-cyclic photophosphorylation
1. It is performed by photosystem I
1. It is performed by collaboration of
independently.
both PS I and PS II.
2. An external source of electron is not
2. The process requires an external electron
required.
donor.
3. It synthesizes only ATP.
3. It synthesizes ATP and NADH both.
4. It occurs only in stromal or intergranal
4. It occurs in the granal thylakoids only.
thylakoids.
UIC
21-1* I I
Chemiosmotic Hypothesis of ATP FORMATION
This hypothesis was proposed by Mitchell in 1961. ATP synthesis is linked to development
of proton gradient across the membrane of thylakoid and mitochondria.
The process that causes development of proton gradient across the membrane is-
1. Splitting of water molecules occurs inside the thylakoid to produce hydrogen ion or
proton.
2. As electron passes through the photosystems, protons are transported across the
membrane because primary acceptor of electron is located towards the outer side
the membrane.
3. The NADP reductase enzyme is located in the stroma side of membrane. Electrons come
out from the acceptor of electron of PSI, protons are necessary for reduction of
NADP+ to
NADP + H+. These protons are also removed from the stroma. This creates proton
gradient across the thylakoids membrane along with pH in the lumen.
4. Gradient is broken down due to movement of proton across the membrane to the stroma
through trans-membrane channel ofF0 of ATPase. One part of this enzyme is embedded
in membrane to form trans-membrane channel. The other portion is called Fl that
protrudes on the outer surface of thylakoid membrane which makes the energy packed
ATP.
5. ATP and NADPH produced due to movement of electron is used immediately to fix
CO2 to form sugar.
• The product of light reaction used to drive the process leading to synthesis of sugar
are called biosynthetic phase of photosynthesis.
Calvin Cycle/C3 cycle/Reductive Pentose Sugar Phosphate Pathway
Malvin Calvin, Benson and their colleagues used radioactive 14C and Chlorealla and
Scenedesmus algae to discover that first C 02 fixation product is 3-carbon organic
compound (3-phosphoglyceric acid) or PGA. Later on a new compound was discovered which
contain 4-carbon called Oxaloacetic Acid (AAO). On the basis of number of carbon atoms in
first stable product they are named C3 and C4 pathway.
Calvin cycle can be described under three stages: carboxylation, reduction and regeneration.
• Carboxylation is the fixation of CO2 into 3-phosphoglyceric acid (3-PGA).

Carboxylation of RuBP occurs in presence of enzyme RuBP carboxylase (RuBisCO)
which results in the formation of two molecules of 3-PGA.
• Reduction is series of reaction that leads to formation of glucose. Two
molecules of ATP and two molecules ofNADPH are required for reduction of one
molecules of CO2. Six turn of this cycle are required for removal of one molecule
of Glucose molecules from pathway.
• Regeneration is the generation of RuBP molecules for the continuation of cycle. This
process require one molecules of ATP.
Almosphe i=
I
Wbul : -1.G- ·o + 11 P
bl pho ph-11
Re enerallon r.;\
3-phn ,pho •I ero1.e
L A T P
@ Hcdu tlon -t
NADPH
ph™ospb ADP
te +
P, -tN.ADP·
u rose, t.arch
Fig-Calvin Cycle/ C3 Cycle
• For every molecules of CO2 entering the Calvin Cycle, 3 molecules of ATP and 2
molecules of NADPH is required. To make one molecules of glucose 6 turns of cycle

is completed so total energy molecule required is
In Out
Six CO2 One glucose
18ATP 18ADP
12 12 NADP
NADPH
C4 pathway/Hatch Slack Pathway
• This pathway was worked out by Hatch and Slack (1965, 1967), mainly operational
in plants growing in dry tropical region like Maize, Sugarcane, Sorghum etc.
• In this pathway first stable product is a 4-carbon compound Oxaloacetic acid
(AAO) so called as C4 pathway. C4 plants have Kranz Anatomy (vascular bundles are
surrounded by bundle sheath cells arranged in wreath like manner), characterized by
large no of chloroplast, thick wall impervious to gases and absence of intercellular
spaces.
• The primary CO2 acceptor is a 3-carbon molecule Phosphoenol Pyruvate present in
mesophyll cells and enzyme involved is PEP carboxylase.
• OAA formed in mesophyll cell forms 4-carbon compound like malic acid or aspartic
acid which is transported to bundle sheath cells.
• In bundle sheath cell, it is broken into CO2 and a 3-carbon molecule. The 3-carbon
molecule is returned back to mesophyll cells to form PEP.
• The C 02 molecules released in bundle sheath cells enters the Calvin cycle, where
enzyme RuBisCO is present that forms sugar.
(O l'hm1pls
L..;:.r..,,.
Rr
C, id
Photorespiration
• It is a the light dependent process of oxygenation of RuBP and release of carbon

dioxide by photosynthetic organs of plants.
• Photorespiration decreases the rate of photosynthesis when oxygen
concentration is increased from 2-3% to 21%.
• Presence of light and higher concentration of Oxygen results in the binding of
RuBisC0 enzyme with 02 to form.
RuBisCO + 02 PGA + phosphoglycolate
This pathway involves Chloroplast, Peroxisome and Mitochondria. Photorespiration do

not occurs in C4 plants.
C3 plants C4 plants
1. The leaves show Kranz

1. The leaves do not have Kranz anatomy.
anatomy in leaves.
2. Photorespiration occurs.
2. Photorespiration does not occur.
3. RuBisC0 is the first acceptor of CO2.
3. PEP is the first acceptor of CO2.
4. PGA is the first stable product.
5. Plants are adapted to all climates. 4. OAA is the first stable product.
6. Mesophyll cells perform complete 5. Plants are adapted to tropical climate.
photosynthesis. 6. Mesophyll cells perform only
initial fixation.
Factors affecting photosynthesis
1. Light- as light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis also increases until light
saturation point.
2. Carbon dioxide concentration- with increase in concentration of CO2 rate of
photosynthesis increase till the compensation point.
3. Temperature- it does not influence the rate of photosynthesis directly but at higher
temperature enzyme activity is inhibited due to denaturation of enzymes which affect the
dark reaction.
4. Water- due to increase in amount of water, rate of photosynthesis does not increase
proportionally as after saturation no more water is required during
photosynthesis.
Blackman's Law of Limiting Factors states:

If a chemical process is affected by more than one factor, then its rate will be determined by
the factor which is nearest to its minimal value: it is the factor which directly affects the
process if its quantity is changed.
CHAPTER-14
RESPIRATION IN PLANTS
Respiration is an energy releasing, enzymatically controlled catabolic process which involves

a step-wise oxidative breakdown of food substance inside living cells.
• Living organism require energy for all activities like absorption, movement,
reproduction or even breathing. Energy required is obtained from oxidation of
food during respiration.
• Cellular respiration is the mechanism of breaking down of food materials within the
cell to release energy for synthesis of ATP.
• Breaking down of complex molecules takes place to produce energy in cytoplasm
and in the mitochondria.
• Breaking down of C-C bond of complex compounds through oxidation within the
cells leading to release of energy is called respiration. The compounds that get
oxidized
are called respiratory substrates.
• Energy released during oxidation is not used directly but utilized in synthesis of ATP,
which is broken down when energy is required. Therefore, ATP is called energy
currency of cells.
• The process of respiration requires oxygen. In plants oxygen is taken in by
stomata, lenticels and root hairs.
• Plants can get along without respiratory organs because:
1. Each plant part takes care of its own gas-exchange needs.
2. Plants do not present great demands for gas exchange.
3. Distance that gases must diffuse in large plant is not great.
4. During photosynthesis 02 is released in leaves and diffuse to other part of
leaves.
• During process of respiration oxygen is utilized and carbon dioxide and water is
released along with energy molecules in form of ATP.
• Respiratory Quotient is the ratio of the volume of carbon dioxide produced to
theXI – XII SCIENCE NEET / JEE / CET / BOARD (PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY, BIOLOGY, MATHEMATICS)
volume of oxygen consumed in respiration over a period of time. RQ is equal to

one for carbohydrate and less than one for protein and peptones.
Res:piratiol'•
Aerobi.c Re s pi r a t i o n A n aeb o r b i c Resp·r
Aerobic Respiration
s
-
Glycolysi Kreb'sCyde errnioal d t i o n
Aerobic Respiration is an enzymatically controlled release of energy in a stepwise catabolic
-
process of complete oxidation of organic food into carbon dioxide and water with oxygen
acting as terminal oxidant.
CIU<'l'l!i"'
ATP t t
T'Tl se pbosphalc: rrto c phosphate

d m -3 - -p f l o s p b a h : I fDlllydrmy 'tOO
13 ., ,"1MJ• pho p If')
(3 '
·1r1m. bi.,phosphatc
11.3 bl phosphogly a Jd'
[cl J
ATP
2 ·rr1os., phosplm "
l l - p b " 'p l m t. .,r, flf'ld)
:JCf
Glycolysis
• The scheme of glycolysis is given by Gustav Embden, Otto Meyerhof, and J. Parnas. It
is also called as EMP pathway.
• Glycolysis is the partial oxidation of glucose or similar hexose sugar into
two molecules of pyruvic acid through a series of enzyme mediated reaction
releasing some ATP and NADHZ. It occurs in cytoplasm.
• In plants glucose is derived from sucrose or from storage carbohydrates. Sucrose is
converted into glucose and fructose by enzyme invertase.
• Glycolysis starts with phosphorylation of glucose in presence of enzyme
hexokinase to form Glucose-6-phosphate. One molecules of ATP is used in this process.
• In next steps Glucose-6-phosphate is converted into fructose-6-phosphate, catalysed by
enzyme phosphohexose isomerase.
• Fructose-6-phosphate uses another molecule of ATP to form Fructose-1-6
biphospahte in presence of enzyme phosphfructokinase.
Pyruvic Acid
-ctrc ·c-dFermemat;on lcoholic F men , tion
• In glycolysis two molecules of ATP are consumed during double phosphorylation of

glucose to fructose 1,6 biphosphate. Two molecules of NADPHZ are formed at the
time of oxidation of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate to 1,3 biphosphoglycerate.
Each NADH is equivalent to 3ATP, so that net gain in glycolysis is 8 ATP.
• Pyruvic acid is the key product of glycolysis, further breakdown of pyruvic acid
depends upon the need of the cell.
• In animal cells, like muscles during exercise, when oxygen is insufficient for aerobic
respiration, pyruvic acid is reduced to Lactic acid by enzyme lactate
dehydrogenase due to reduction by NADHZ.
• In fermentation by yeast, pyruvic acid is converted to ethanol and CO2. The enzyme
involved is pyruvic acid decarboxylase and alcohol dehydrogenase catalyse this
reaction.
• In both lactic acid fermentation and alcohol fermentation very less amount of energy
is released.
• Yeasts poison themselves to death if concentration of alcohol reaches above 13%.
• Final product of glycolysis, pyruvate is transported from the cytoplasm into
mitochondria for further breakdown.
• Oxidation of Pyruvate to Acetyl-CoA is done to produce CO2 and NADH. The
reaction catalyzed by pyruvic dehydrogenase requires the participation of several
Coenzymes including NAD+ .
Mg2+
Pyruvic acid + CoA + N AD+ - - - - - - - - - - - - - + Acetyl CoA +
CO2
Pyruvate dehydrogenase
+NADH+H+
• The Acetyl CoA enters a cyclic pathway called TCA cycle or Kreb's cycle.
a ketoglutarlc cid
!SC)
crrn:rc A ID CYCLE J
. co
1
c N A D •
• NA
DHt
f-1'
1 0, . Coop
Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle/Krebs Cycle
• TCA cycle was discovered by Hans Krebs in 1940. This cycle is called TCA cycle
because initial product is citric acid.
• Acetyl CoA combine with OAA ( Oxaloacetic acid) and water to yield citric acid in
presence of enzyme citrate synthase to release CoA.
• Citrate is then isomerised to isocitrate. It is followed by two successive
steps of decarboxylation, leading to the formation of n-ketoglutaric acid and
then
succinyl-CoA.
• In the remaining steps, succinyl-CoA is oxidised to OAA allowing the cycle to
continue.
• There are three points in the cycle where NAD + is reduced to NADH2 and
one point where FAD + is reduced to FADH2 .
• A molecule of glucose produces two molecules of N ADH2, 2ATP and two pyruvate
while undergoing glycolysis. The two molecules of pyruvate are completely degraded
in Krebs cycle to form two molecules of ATP, 8N ADH2 and 2F ADH2.
Mitochondrial Matrix
pyruvic+ 4NAD++FAD++ 2H2O +ADP+ P i - - - - - - - 3CO2 +4N + 4H+
FADH 2 ATP
ADH
Terminal Oxidation is the name of oxidation found in aerobic respiration that occurs
towards end of catabolic process and involves the passage of both electrons and protons of
reduced coenzyme to oxygen to produce water.
Electron Transport Chain
• The metabolic pathway through which the electron passes from one carrier to
another inside the inner mitochondrial membrane is called ETC or mitochondrial
respiratory chain.
• Electrons from NADH produced during citric acid cycle are oxidized by NADH
dehydrogenase and electrons are transferred to ubiquinone located within the inner
membrane. Ubiquinone also receives electrons from FADHZ which is transferred to
cytochrome c via cytochrome bc1 complex.
• When the electrons pass from one carrier to another via electron transport chain,
they produce ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate. The number of ATP molecules
synthesized depends upon electron donor.
• Oxidation of one molecule of NADH gives rise to 3 molecules of ATP, while oxidation
of one molecule of F AD2 produce two molecules of ATP.
Oxidative phosphorylation Photophosphorylation
a) It occurs in respiration process.

a) It occurs in photosynthesis.
b) Energy of oxidation-reduction is used
b)Light energy is utilized for production of
for production of proton gradient required
proton gradient for phosphorylation.
for phosphorylation.
• The energy released during ETC is used to make ATP with the help of ATP synthase,
which consists of two major parts Fl and F0.
• Fl is a peripheral membrane protein complex having site for synthesis of ATP from
ADP and inorganic phosphate. F0 is integral membrane protein that form channel for
proton.
• For each ATP produced 2H+ passes through F0 from the intermembrane space to the
matrix down the electrochemical proton gradient.
Fermentation Aerobic Respiration
a. It accounts for incomplete oxidation a. It accounts for complete oxidation of

of glucose. glucose.
b. In fermentation, there is net gain of only b. In aerobic respiration, there is more net
two molecules of ATP. gain of ATP.
c. NADH is oxidized to NAD+ very c. NADH is oxidized to NAD+ very

slowly. fast.
Amphibolic Pathway
• Glucose is the favored substrate for respiration. All carbohydrates are usually
converted into glucose before used for respiration.
• Fats needs to be broken down into glycerol and fatty acid, which is further broken
converted into Acetyl CoA and enter the respiratory pathway.
• Proteins are broken into amino acids and further enter into Krebs cycle.
• Breaking down process within living organism is called catabolism and synthesis
process is called anabolism process. So, respiration is an Amphibolic
pathway.
CHAPTER-15
PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
• Root, stem, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds arise in orderly manner in plants.
The sequence of growth is as follows-
• Plants complete their vegetative phase to move into reproductive phase in
which flower and fruits are formed for continuation of life cycle of plant.
• Development is the sum of two processes growth and differentiation. Intrinsic and
extrinsic factors control the process of growth and development in plants.
)
• Growth is a permanent or irreversible increase in dry weight, size, mass or volume of
cell, organ or organism. It is internal or intrinsic in living beings.
• In plants growth is accomplished by cell division, increase in cell number and cell
enlargement. So, growth is a quantitative phenomenon which can be measured in
relation to time.
• Plant growth is generally indeterminate due to capacity of unlimited growth
throughout the life. Meristem tissues are present at the certain locality of plant
body.
• The plant growth in which new cells are always being added to plant body due to
meristem is called open form of growth.
• Root apical meristem and shoot apical meristem are responsible for
primary growth and elongation of plant body along the axis.
• Intercalary meristem located at nodes produce buds and new branches in
plants.
hoot
apical
memtrm
hoot
cambium
Root
'- R o o t ,
plea
me-rn;t._;m
• Secondary growth in plants is the function of lateral meristem that is vascular

cambium and cork cambium.
Growth is measurable
• At cellular level, growth is the increase in amount of protoplasm. It is difficult to

measure the increase in amount of protoplasm but increase in cell, cell
number and cell size can be measured.
• The parameter used to measure growth is increase in fresh weight, dry weight, length,
area, and volume and cell number. All parameters are not used for every kind
of
growth.
P:bas.es of
I
'
gro,wt
•I
1,
I
' Forma ·ve Phase , , P ase of Enlargement Ph se of Matura• on
• Formative phase is also called as the phase of cell formation or cell division. It occurs
I
at root apex, shoot apex and other region having meristematic tissue. The rate of
respiration is very high in the cells undergoing mitosis division in formative
phase.
• Phase of Enlargement- newly formed cells produced in formative phase undergo
enlargement. Enlarging cells also develops vacuoles that further increase the volume
of cell.
• Cell enlargement occurs in all direction with maximum elongation in conducting
tissues and fibres.
• Phase of maturation- the enlarged cells develops into special or particular type of
cells by undergoing structural and physiological differentiation.
• Growth Rate- increase in growth per unit time is called growth rate. Growth rate may
be arithmetic or geometrical.
• Arithmetic Growth- the rate of growth is constant and increase in growth occurs in
arithmetic progression- 2,4,6,8 ....... It is found in root and shoot elongation.
L1 =Lo+ rt
Length after time= length at beginning+ growth rate x time.
Arttb.rne
i J:
l Tirne
• Geometric Growth- here initial growth is slow and increase rapidly thereafter. Every
cell divides. The daughter cells grow and divide and the granddaughter cells that
result into exponential growth.
• Geometrical growth is common in unicellular organisms when growing in
nutrient rich medium.
(b) Grontetric
DJ
Stationary phase
Time
• Sigmoid growth curve consists of fast dividing exponential phase and stationary
phase. It is typical of most living organisms in their natural
environment.
Exponential growth can be represented as follows-
W 1 =W0ert_Wl = final size, WO= initial size, r = growth rate, t = time of growth and e is
the base of natural logarithms (2.71828).
• Quantitative comparison between the growth of living system can be made by
1. Measurement and comparison of total growth per unit time is called the absolute rate.
2. The growth of given system per unit time expressed on a common basis is called relative
growth rate.
Condition for growth
• Necessary condition for growth includes water, oxygen and essential elements.
Water is required for cell enlargement and maintaining turgidity. Water also provide
medium for enzymatic conditions.
• Protoplasm formation requires water and micro and macronutrients
and act as source of energy.
• Optimal temperature and other environmental conditions are also
essential for growth of the plant.
• Cells produced by apical meristem become specialized to perform specific
function. This act of maturation is called differentiation.
• The living differentiated cells that have lost ability of division can regain the capacity
of division. This phenomenon is called dedifferentiation. For example
interfascicular cambium and cork cambium.
• Dedifferentiated cells mature and lose the capacity of cell division again to
perform specific functions. This process is called redifferentiation.
Development
It is the sequence of events that occur in the life history of cell, organ or organism which
includes seed germination, growth, differentiation, maturation, flowering, seed formation
and senescence.
· ell Olvl Ian Death
I SENESCE •ci;;
I
I
I
V DUTer nlJD.llon
Pla maUt growth 1
MERISTEMATI
CE:LL
MA'TURE
Maturation ELL
E::x:pnnston
(El ngauon)
Sequence of development process in plant cell
• Different structures develop in different phases of growth as well as in

response to environment. The ability to change under the influence of internal or
external stimuli is called plasticity. Heterophylly in cotton plant is the example of
plasticity.
Plant Growth Regulators are simple molecules of diverse chemical composition which may
be indole compounds, adenine derivatives or derivatives of carotenoids.
• Auxin was isolated by F.W. Went from tips of coleoptiles of oat seedlings.
• The 'bakane disease' of rice seedlings is caused by fungal pathogen Gibberella
fujikuroi. E. Kurosawa found that this disease is caused due to presence of
Gibberellin.
• Skoog and Miller identified and crystallized the cytokinesis, promoting
l,
active substance called kinetin.

Plant Growth
.Regulators
I
I I
l l
Growth Promoting
... Growth Inhibitors
.
I
I I
■
I I
I
1 I 1 l
J Auxin Gibberellins
"::::
-
Cyt-okinin:s
""
Ethylene ,--,
AbscisicAcid
'
Auxin-was first isolated from human urine. It is commonly indole-3-acetic acid (IAA). It is
generally produced at stem and root apex and migrate to site of action.
Functions-
1. Cell enlargement.
2. Apical dominance
3. Cell division
4. Inhibition of abscission
5. Induce Parthenocarpy
Gibberellins- are promotery PGR found in more than 100 forms named as G A1, GA2,
GA3 .... G Arno- The most common one is GA3 (Gibberellic Acid).
Functions-
1. Cell elongation.
2. Breaking of dormancy.
3. Early maturity
4. Seed germination.
Cytokinins- the plant growth hormone is basic in nature. Most common forms include
kinetin, zeatin, etc. They are mainly synthesized in roots.
Functions-
5. Cell division and cell differentiation.

6. Essential for tissue culture.
7. Overcome apical dominance.
8. Promote nutrient mobilisation.
Ethylene - it is a gaseous hormone which stimulates transverse or isodiametric growth but

retards the longitudinal one.
Functions-
9. Inhibition of longitudinal growth.

10.Fruit ripening
11.Senescence
12.Promote apical dominance
Abscisic Acid - it is also called stress hormone or dorrnin. It acts as a general plant growth
inhibitor. Abscisic acid is produced in the roots of the plant and terminal buds at the top
of plant.
Function-
13.Bud dormancy
14.Leaf senescence
15.Induce Parthenocarpy
16.Seed development and maturation.
Photoperiodism- the effect of photoperiods or day duration of light hours on the growth and
development of plant, especially flowering is called Photoperiodism. On the basis of
photoperiodic response, flowering plants have been divided into the following categories-
1. Short Day Plants- they flower when photoperiod is below a critical period (continuous
duration of light which must not be exceeded in short day plants and should
always be exceeded in long day plants in order to bring them flower). Example-
Xanthium, Rice, Sugarcane, Potato etc.
2. Long Day Plants- these plants flower when they receive long photoperiod of light,
greater than critical period. Example- Radish, Barley, Lettuce.
3. Day Neutral Plants - the plant can blossom throughout the year. Example- Bean, Wild
Kidney.
Vernalisation- is the process of shortening of the juvenile or vegetative phase and hastening
of flowering by cold treatment. The stimulus ofVernalisation is perceived by meristematic
cells.
• Vernalisation helps in shortening of vegetative period of plant and brings about early
flowering.
• It is applicable to temperate plants like Wheat, Rice, Millets, etc.
CHAPTER-17
BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GASES
The process of exchange of 0 2 from the atmosphere with CO2 produced by the cell is called
breathing. It occurs in two stages of inspiration and expiration. During inspiration air enters
the lungs from atmosphere and during expiration air leaves the lungs.
Breathing Respiration
a. It is simply an intake of fresh air and a. It is the oxidation of food to form carbon
removal of foul air. dioxide, water and energy.
b. It is a physical process. b. It is a biochemical process.
c. No energy is released. c. Energy is released in form of ATP.
d. It is an extracellular process. d. It is an intracellular process.
Respiratory Organs - Mechanism of breathing varies in different organism according to

their body structure and habitat.
Respiratory Organs Organisms
Entire Body surface Sponges, coelenterate, flatworms.
Skin Earthworm.
Tracheal system Insects
Gills Pisces, aquatic arthropods.
Lungs Amphibians, mammals.
Human Respiratory System
• Human respiratory system consists of a pair of nostrils, pharynx, larynx, bronchi and
bronchioles that finally terminates into alveoli.
• Nasal chamber open into pharynx that leads to larynx. Larynx contains voice box
(sound box) that help in sound production.
• The trachea, primary, secondary and tertiary bronchi and initial bronchioles
are supported by incomplete cartilaginous rings to prevent collapsing in absence of
air.
• Each bronchiole terminates into an irregular walled, vascularized bag like structure
called alveoli.
• The branching network of bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli collectively form

the lungs.
• Two lungs are covered with double layered pleura having pleural fluid between them
to reduce the friction on lung surface.
Res.pira ory System
Conducting Parts Exchange Parts
• Conducting parts include nostrils, pharynx, larynx and trachea. Main

functions include-
1. Transport of atmospheric air to alveoli.

2. Removing foreign particles from air, humidifying it and bringing it to body
temperature.
• The exchange parts are alveoli. It is the site of actual diffusion of 02

and CO2
between blood and atmospheric air.
Steps of Respiration
3. Breathing in which Oxygen rich atmospheric air is diffused in and CO2 rich
alveolar air is diffused out.
4. Diffusion of gases across alveolar membrane.
5. Transport of gases by blood.
6. Diffusion of 02 and CO2 between blood and tissues.
7. Utilization of 02 by cells to obtain energy and release of CO2 (cellular respiration).
Mechanism of Breathing
• Breathing involves inspiration and expiration. During inspiration atmospheric air

is drawn in and during expiration, alveolar air is released out.
• Movement of air in and out takes place due to difference in pressure gradient.
• Inspiration occurs when pressure inside the lung is less and expiration occurs when
pressure is more in lungs than outside.
• The diaphragm and external and internal intercostal muscles between the ribs help
in developing pressure gradient due to change in volume.
AiT cntcrin,i! lun,i!
• The contraction of intercostal muscles lifts the ribs and sternum causing an increase
in volume of thoracic cavity that results in decrease in pressure than the
atmospheric pressure. This causes inspiration.
• Relaxation of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles reduce the thoracic volume
and
increase the pressure causing expiration.
• The volume of air involved in breathing movements is estimated by using

spirometer
for clinical assessment of pulmonary functions.
Ribs and
Volume of
LhoraJC
d.c rcasecl
Respiratory Volume and Capacities
Tidal volume (TV) - volume of air inspired or expired during a normal respiration. It is
about S00mL in healthy man.
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)- additional volume of air a person can inspire by
forceful inspiration. It is about 2500 mL to 3000mL.
Expiatory Reserve Volume (ERV)- additional volume of air a person can expire by forceful
expiration. It is about 1000 mL to ll00mL.
Residual Volume (RV) - volume of air remaining in lungs even after a forcible expiration. It
is about ll00mL to 1200mL.
Inspiratory Capacity (IC) - TV + IRV
Expiratory Capacity (EC) - TV + ERV
Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) - ERV +
RV
Vital Capacity (VC) - maximum volume of air a person can breathe in after a forceful
expiration. ERV+ TV+ IRV
Total Lung Capacity (TLC) - total volume of air accommodated in lung at the end of forced
inspiration. RV+ ERV+ TV+ IRV or Vital capacity+ Residual Volume.
f .1rry111
run I 1.0 Jnun ll

mmH• J- OmmU
Exchange of Gases
• Exchange of gases takes place at two sites
1. Alveoli to blood
2. Between blood and tissues.
• Exchanges of gases occur by simple diffusion due to pressure/ concentration

gradient, solubility of the gases and thickness of membrane.
• Pressure contributed by individual gas in a mixture of gas is called partial pressure

represented by pCO2 and pO2 .
• Partial pressure of Oxygen and carbon dioxide at different part involved in
diffusion varies from one part to another and moves from higher partial pressure to
lower partial pressure.
• Solubility of CO2 is 20-25 times more than solubility of 02 , so CO2 diffuse
much faster through membrane.
• Diffusion membrane is three layered thick, that is alveolar squamous epithelium,
endothelium of alveolar capillaries and basement substance between them.
Basemenl
substance
Transport of Gases
• Blood is the medium of transport for CO2 and 02 . Most of oxygen (97%)
is transported through REC and remaining 3% by blood plasma.
• 20-25% of CO2 is transported by REC, 70% as bicarbonate and rest 7% in
dissolved state by blood plasma.
Transport of Oxygen
• Haemoglobin in RBC combines with 02 to form Oxyhaemoglobin. Each haemoglobin

combine with four oxygen molecules.
• Binding of 02 is related with partial pressure of 02 and CO2, hydrogen ion
concentration and temperature.
• Percentage saturation of haemoglobin and partial pressure of oxygen forms
sigmoid curve (oxygen dissociation curve).
• In the alveoli, pO2 is more and pCO2 is less, less H+ ions concentration and lower
temperature favour the binding of 02 with hemoglobin. Where opposite condition in
tissues favour the dissociation of 0xyhaemoglobin.
Transport of Carbon dioxide
• Carbon dioxide is transported by haemoglobin as carbamino-haemoglobin.

In tissues pCO2 is high and pO2 is less that favour the binding of carbon dioxide
with haemoglobin. Opposite condition help in dissociation of carbamino-
haemoglobin in alveoli.
• Enzyme carbonic anhydrase help in formation of carbonate ions to transport carbon
dioxide.
Regulation of Respiration
• Human beings have ability to maintain and moderate the rate of respiration to
fulfill the demand of body tissues by neural system.
• Respiratory rhythm centre is located in medulla region of hind brain. Pneurnotaxic
centre in pons moderate the function of respiratory rhythm centre.
• Chemo-sensitive area near rhythm centre is highly sensitive to CO2 and H+ ions that
ultimately control the respiratory rate. Oxygen do not play major role in controlling
rate of respiration.
Functions of Respiration-
1. Energy production
2. Maintenance of acid-base balance.
3. Maintenance of temperature
4. Return of blood and lymph.
Mountain Sickness is the condition characterised by the ill effect of hypoxia (shortage of
oxygen) in the tissues at high altitude commonly to person going to high altitude for the
first time.
Symptoms-
• Loss of appetite, nausea, and vomiting occurs due to expansion of gases in

digestive system.
• Breathlessness occurs because of pulmonary oedema.
• Headache, depression, disorientation, lack of sleep, weakness and fatigue.
Disorder of Respiratory System
1. Asthma- it is due to allergic reaction to foreign particles that affect the respiratory
tract. The symptoms include coughing, wheezing and difficulty in breathing. This is due
to excess of mucus in wall of respiratory tract.
2. Emphysema- is the inflation or abnormal distension of the bronchioles or alveolar sacs
oflungs. This occurs due to destroying of septa between alveoli because of smoking and
inhalation of other smokes. The exhalation becomes difficult and lung remains inflated.
3. Occupational Respiratory Disorders- occurs due to occupation of individual. This is
caused by inhalation of gas, fumes or dust present in surrounding of work place. This
includes Silicosis, Asbestoses due to exposer of silica and asbestos. The symptom includes
proliferation of fibrous connective tissue of upper part of lung causing inflammation.
4. Pneumonia- it is acute infection or inflammation of the alveoli of the lungs due to
bacterium streptococcus pneumoniae. Alveoli become acutely inflamed and most of air
space of the alveoli is filled with fluid and dead white blood corpuscles limiting gaseous
exchange.
CHAPTER-18
BODY FLU1DS AND CIRCULATION
Body fluids are the medium of transport of nutrients, oxygen and other important
substances in the body.
Body Fluids
lntraceUular Fluid ExtraceUular F'luid

(Blood, Lymph, Ce;ebrospinal fluid
(Fluid ofof each cell)
etc.)
Blood is the most commonly used body fluid in most of the higher organisms. Lymph
also transports certain substances like protein and fats.
Blood
Blood is a fluid connective tissue composed of a fluid matrix, plasma and the blood
corpuscles. It forms about 30-35% of the extracellular fluid. It is slightly alkaline fluid
having pH7.4.
Blood
Plum
T w, r, pro i s,
romb1> rN t:r lort
• Plasma is straw coloured viscous fluid that constitutes 55% of blood volume. It
consists of 90-92% water, 6-8% protein (fibrinogens, albumins and globulins),
glucose, amino acids and small amount of minerals like Na+, Ca++, er etc.
• Erythrocytes, leucocytes and platelets are collectively called formed elements.
• Erythrocytes are most abundant cells in human body. Total blood count of RBCs is 5-
5.5 million, which is slightly less in females due to menstruation. It is formed in bone
marrow. Nucleus is absent in mammalian RBCs having biconcave shape.
• Every 100 ml of blood contain 12-16 gm. of haemoglobin. They have life span of 120
days. They are destroyed in spleen( graveyard of RBCs)
• Leucocytes or WBCs are colourless due to absence of haemoglobin. 6000-8000
of WBCs are present in each ml. of blood.
,,-.....
WBC
'::r:'
...---..:: :::::i-..
.
::
Gr.mulocyct:s Agnmulocyc:tes
-
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L mphocytes
Eosinophils
'-"
Mo n o cyc
Ba . s oph . . .. ,
... , tes
ils
,. . . . . p,h,ils
Ne u t r o
• Neutrophils are most abundant and basophils are least abundant WBCs.
Monocytes and neutrophils are phagocytic cells which destroy foreign organisms.
Eo•inopbil u phil Tlymp
V
Basopbi1 B Eymph
• Basophils secrete histamine, serotonin and heparin that are involved in inflammatory
reactions.
• Eosinophils resist infection and allergic reactions. B and T lymphocytes are
responsible for immune response of the body.
Thrombocytes or platelets are cell fragments produced from megakaryocytes in bone

marrow. 150000-350000 platelets are present in each ml of blood. Platelets are involved in
clotting or coagulation of blood in case of injuries.
Blood Groups - blood of human beings differ in certain aspects although it appear same in
all individuals. Two main types of grouping are ABO and Rh.
ABO grouping is based on presence or absence of two surface antigens RBC, antigen A and
antigen B. The plasma of an individual also contains two antibodies produced in response
of antigens.
• During blood transfusion, blood of donor has to be matched with blood of recipients
to avoid clumping of RBCs.
• Group 'O' blood can be donated to any individual with any blood group, so it is
called
universal donor.
• Person with 'AB' blood group can receive blood from any person of any group, so it
is called universal recipient.
Rh grouping - Rh antigen (similar to Rhesus monkey) are observed on surface of RBCs of

majority of individuals (about 80%). Such people are called Rh positive (Rh+) and those
in whom this antigen is absent are called Rh negative (Rh-).
• Erythroblastosis foetalis- if father blood is Rh+ and mother blood is Rh - , the

foetus blood is Rh+. During the delivery of first child there is a possibility of
exposure of mother blood with foetus blood to develop antibodies in mother blood.
In subsequent pregnancy the mother's blood can leak into foetus blood and
destroy the foetus RBC.
This case is called erythroblastosis foetalis.

InjuredTissue
''
Releases
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Clot
Coagulation of blood (Blood Clotting)
When an injury is caused to a blood vessel bleeding starts which is stopped by a process
called blood clotting. An injury or trauma stimulates the platelets in the blood to release
certain factors that activate the mechanism of coagulation. Calcium play important role in
blood clotting.
Lymph
During flow of blood through capillaries, some water soluble substances move out in the
space between cells of tissues. This fluid released out is called interstitial fluid or tissue fluid.
It is similar to the blood but has fewer blood proteins, less calcium and phosphorus and high
glucose concentration.
• It is a colourless fluid containing specialized lymphocytes that provide immune

response to body.
• Main function of lymph is to provide immunity, carry proteins and fats molecules and
transport oxygen, food materials, hormones etc.
Circulatory Pathways
.. c_w_c_u_.a.t.,...o_ry_Sy_st_e_m
I
l
Open Circulatory System Closed Circulatory Syste.m
(Arthroi,ods, Mull1.Jsc.s) (Annelfds,Cnordatesl
• All vertebrates have a muscular chambered heart.
Fish - 2 chambered heart
Amphibian and Reptiles (except crocodile) - 3 chambered heart.
Crocodile, Birds and Mammals - 4 chambered heart.
Human Circulatory System - consists of 4 chambered muscular heart, closed branching

blood vessels and circulatory fluid blood.
Heart is the mesodermally derived muscular organ, present in thoracic cavity between the
two lungs protected by double membrane of pericardium.
Vena = v a
Pulmonary
ino-alrlal node
Righ• alrium
Atrlo-vcntrl 111,
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Left " nlrtck·
lulcrvcntrkular
sepium
Apex
• The upper two chamber is called atria and lower two chambers are called ventricles.
Interatrial septum separate the right and left atrium and thick walled inter ventricle
septum separate the ventricles.
• The opening between right atrium and right ventricle is guarded by a three
muscular flaps called tricuspid valve. Bicuspid or mitral valve guards the left
atrium and
ventricle.
• The opening of right and left ventricle to pulmonary artery and aorta respectively
is controlled by semilunar valve.
• The nodal tissue present on upper right corner of right atrium is called SAN (sino
atrial node) and those on lower left corner of right atrium is called AVN ( atrio
ventricular node).
• The purkinje fibres along with right and left bundles form the bundle of HIS. The
nodal musculature has ability to generate action potential.
• SAN generate maximum number of action potential and is responsible for rhythmic
contraction of heart. Therefore it is called pace maker.
Cardiac Cycle
• To begin with, all four chambers are in relaxed state called joint diastole. As
the bicuspid and tricuspid valves are open, blood from pulmonary vein and vena
cava flows to left and right ventricle respectively. Semilunar valves are closed at this
stage.
• SA node generates action potential that contracts both atria (atrial systole). The
action potential passes to AV node and bundle of HIS transmit it to
ventricular musculature to cause ventricular systole. At the same time atria
undergoes relaxation diastole to close the bicuspid and tricuspid valve.
• Semilunar valves open into circulatory system that relax the ventricle and close the
valves to prevent back flow of blood.
• As the pressure inside ventricle decreases the bicuspid and tricuspid valve open to
repeat the process or cardiac cycle.
• During each cardiac cycle two sounds are produced. The first sound (lub) is
due to closure of bicuspid and tricuspid valve and 2nd heart sound (dub) is due to
closure of semilunar valve.
ECG (Electrocardiograph) is a graphical representation of electrical activity of heart during

cardiac cycle. The electrocardiograph machine is used to obtain electrocardiogram. The
patient is connected to three electrical leads to wrists and left ankle.
p T
• The P-wave represents the electrical excitation of atria (depolarisation) which leads to
contraction of atria.
• The QRS-wave represents the depolarisation of ventricles, which
initiates the ventricular contraction.
• The I-wave represents the return of ventricle from exited to normal state
(repolarization). The end of I-wave marks the end of systole. Counting the number
of QRS complex in given period of time determine the heartbeat rate.
Double Circulation
Flow of same blood twice through the heart once in oxygenated form and other in
deoxygenated form is called double circulation. It includes systematic and pulmonary
circulation.
Systematic circulation includes flow of oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to all parts
of body and deoxygenated blood from various body parts to the right atrium. All systematic
circulation starts form aorta and ends at superior vena cava, inferior vena cava or coronary
sinus to right atrium.
The systematic circulation provides oxygen, nutrients and other substances to the tissues and
take CO2 and other harmful substances away for removal.
Veriaz - Dcm,al Ao.-

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( re a 1 veil s)
T
Srn.ooth Musc1., -
Pulmonary Circulation
The flow of deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs and the return
of
oxygenated blood from the lung to the left atrium is called pulmonary circulation.
Two pulmonary veins from each lung transport the oxygenated blood to the left atrium.
Double circulation prevents the mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
Regulation of Cardiac Activity
• Normal activities of heart are regulated by nodal tissue (SA and AV node), so
the heart is myogenic.
• A special neural centre in medulla oblongata moderates the cardiac function by
ANS. Sympathetic nerve can increase the rate of heart beat and parasympathetic
nerve of ANS decrease the rate of heart beat.
• Adrenal medullary hormone also increases the cardiac output.
Disorder of Circulatory System
1. Hypertension (high blood pressure)- Blood pressure higher than (120/80). 120 mm
Hg is the systolic that is pumping pressure and 80 mm Hg is the diastole, resting pressure.
It leads to heart disease and affect vital organs like brain and kidney.
2. Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)- commonly called atherosclerosis that affects the blood
vessels that supply blood to heart muscles due to deposition of fat, calcium, cholesterol
that makes the arteries lumen narrower.
3. Angina- also called angina pectoris, acute chest pain due to less supply of oxygen to
heart
muscles. It may occur in elderly male and female. It occurs due to restricted blood flow.
4. Heart failure- heart does not pump enough blood to meet the requirement of body. It is
also known as congestive heart failure because congestion of lung is one of its
causes. Heart failure is different from heart attack ( heart muscle is damaged by
inadequate
blood supply) and cardiac arrest ( when heart stops beating).
5. Coronary Thrombosis- formation of clot in the coronary artery is coronary thrombosis.
It occurs most frequently in the left anterior descending coronary artery.
CHAPTER-19
EXCRETORY PRODUCTS AND THEIR ELIMINATION
• Elimination of metabolic waste products from the animal body to regulate the
composition of body fluids and tissues is called excretion. These waste products
include ammonia, uric acid, urea, carbon dioxide and ions like Na+, K+, er and
phosphates and sulphate.
• Ammonia is the most toxic and uric acid is the least toxic. The process of removing
ammonia is called ammonotelisrn and organisms that excrete ammonia are
called ammonotelic (bony fishes, aquatic amphibians and insects).
• The organism that release urea as nitrogenous wastes are called ureotelic (mammals,
terrestrial amphibians). The organism that excretes uric acids is called uricotelic
(reptiles, birds and land snails).
Animals Excretory organs
Flat worms, some annelids and cephalochordates. Protonephridia or flame cells.
Earthworms and annelids Nephridia
Insects including cockroaches Malpighian tubules
Mammals Kidney
Human Excretory System
Human excretory system consists of:
1. A pair of kidneys
2. A pair of ureters
3. A urinary bladder
4. A urethra
• Kidneys are reddish brown bean shaped structure situated between last thoracic
and lumber vertebra. Each kidney has a notch on its inner side called hilum through
which ureter, blood vessels and nerves enter.
• Inside the hilum has broad funnel shaped space called renal pelvis with projection
called calyces.
• Inside the kidney are two zone- outer cortex and inner medulla. Medulla is divided
into medullary pyramids projecting into calyx.
• Cortex extends between medullary pyramids as renal column called Columns
of Bertini.
• The functional unit of kidney is nephron. Each kidney contains about one
million
nephrons.
• Each nephron has two parts- the glomerulus and renal tubules. Glomerulus is the
tuft of capillaries formed by afferent arteriole. Blood from glomerulus is carried
away by efferent arteriole.
• Renal tubules starts with Bowman's capsule continue with tubular parts divided
into
Proximal Convoluted tubules, Henle's loop and Distal Convoluted tubule.
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o 1001> or I h,nk
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• The malpighian tubules, PCT and DCT of nephron are situated in cortical region
where as loops of Henle's into medulla.
Juxta medullary Nephrons Cortical Nephrons
a. Loop of Henle's is short and extend only a a. Loop of Henle's are very long and extend
little into medulla. deep into medulla.
b. The glomeruli lie close to the inner margin

b. The glomeruli lie in the outer cortex.
of the cortex.
Urine formation
• Glomerular filtration.
• Fil ra iono' blood by·glomerules.
•Re.absorption
- •Realbsorp ion byrenal ubules.
·•Secretion
• Tubular cells.secrre es.H+,l<+ammonai in o fil ra •e.
• Glomerular capillaries blood pressure cause filtration of blood through 3 layers

(endothelium of glomerular blood vessels, epithelium of Bowman's capsule and
basement layer between two membranes as ultra-filtration.
• The amount of filtrate formed by kidneys per minute is called glomerular filtration
rate (GFR) which is 125 ml/minute.
• Glomerular Filtration rate is controlled by Juxta glomerular apparatus (JGA).
• 99% of filtrate has to be reabsorbed by renal tubules called reabsorption.
Function of Tubules
1. Proximal Convoluted Tubules (PCT) - all the important nutrients, 70-80% electrolytes
and water are reabsorbed.
2. Henle's Loop- maintains high osmolarity of medullary interstitial fluid.
3. Distal Convoluted Tubules (DCT) - conditional reabsorption of Na+ and water.
Maintains pH and sodium- potassium balance.
4. Collecting Duct- large amount of water is reabsorbed to produce concentrated
urine.
Mechanism of concentration of urine- The flow of filtrate in two limbs of Henle's loop is in
opposite direction to form counter current. The flow of blood in two limbs of vasa recta
increase the osmolarity towards the inner medullary interstitium in the inner medulla.
Proxim"J crm\'t>lutcd lubuk' o,su.ll ·cnwoJu, I lubul.c
H" NJI,
CorteJ<
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of
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lnnrr nl<'<lulla
• The transport of substance facilitated by special arrangement of Henle's loop and vasa
recta is called counter current mechanism.
Regulation of kidney function-
• Functioning of kidney is monitored by hormonal feedback mechanism of

hypothalamus and JGA. Change in blood volume, body fluid and ion concentration
activates the osmoreceptors in the body that stimulate the hypothalamus to release
ADH or vasopressin hormones. The ADH facilitates water absorption in tubules.
• Decrease in glomerular blood pressure activate JG cells to release renin which
converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I and II that increase the glomerular blood
pressure and release of aldosterone that increase absorption of Na+ ions and water.
Micturition - The process of expulsion of urine from the urinary bladder is called
micturition. The neural .mechanism that causes it is called micturition reflex. Urine
formed in nephron is stored in urinary bladder till a voluntary signal is given by CNS. This
initiates the contraction of smooth muscles of the bladder and simultaneous relaxation of
the urethral sphincter causing the release of urine.
• Lungs, liver and skin also play important role in process of excretion. Lungs remove
C 02 and water, liver eliminates bile containing substances like bilirubin,
biliverdin.
Sweat glands remove NaCl, small amount of urea and lactic acid. Sebaceous glands
excrete sterol, hydrocarbons and waxes.
Disorders of Excretory System
• Uremia- there is high concentration of non-protein nitrogen (urea, uric

acid, creatinine). Urea can be removed by hemodialysis.
• Renal failure- also known as kidney failure where glomerular filtration is
ceased and
both kidney stops working. Kidney transplant is the ultimate method in correction
of acute kidney failure.
• Renal Calculi- formation of stone or insoluble mass of crystallized salts
formed within the kidney.
• Glomerulonephritis (Bright's Disease)-inflammation of glomeruli of kidney due to
entry of protein or red blood corpuscles in to filtrate due to injury.
CHAPTER-20
LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT
Locomotion is the voluntary movement of an individual from one place to another.

Walking, running, climbing, swimming are the examples of locomotion. All locomotion are
movement but all movements are not locomotion.
Types of Movement
Cells of the human body show three main types of movements:
...-
Moveme:nts
,.c:: I
- -
.1...
Ciliary
:
Amoeboid
.............
MLiscular
• Macrophages and leucocytes in blood exhibit amoeboid movements.

Coordinated movement of cilia in trachea to remove dusts particles and passage of
ova through fallopian tube is example of Ciliary movements.
• Movement oflimbs, jaw, tongue, etc. need muscular movement. Contractile property
of muscles is used in movement in higher organism including human beings.
Muscles are specialized tissues of mesodermal origin. They have property like excitability,
contractility, extensibility and elasticity.
Based on their location, three types of muscles are identified
M -
uscle
_c
I
-
:L
Skeletal Muslces
-
Visceral Muscles Cardiac Muscles
Skeletal Muscles Visceral Muscles Cardiac Muscles
Associated with skeletal system, Form inner wall of internal Muscles of heart,
alternate light and dark bands visceral organs, non-striated, having branching
(striated), voluntary and involuntary muscle, assists in pattern, alternate light
locomotory and change in body movement of food through and dark bands,
posture function. digestive tract and gametes. involuntary in action.
• Skeletal Muscle is made up of muscles bundles (fascicles), held together by

collagenous connective tissue called fascia.
Fasel I
(mu,;dc-b u n d l e )
Blood 1,nplll.nry
• Each muscle bundle contains a number of muscle fibres. Each muscle fibre is lined by
plasma membrane called sarcolemma enclosing sarcoplasm. Partially arranged
myofibrils are present in muscle bundle having alternate light and dark bands due
to presence of protein- actin and myosin
• Light bands contain actin and is called I-band (isotropic band) and dark band
contains myosin, called A-band (anisotropic band). Both bands are present
parallel to each other in longitudinal fashion.
• In centre of each I-band is elastic fibre called 'Z' line. In the middle of A-band is thin
fibrous 'M' line. The portion of myofibrils between two successive 'Z' lines is the
functional unit of contraction called a sarcomere.
• At resting stage thin filament overlaps the thick filament. The part of thick filament
not overlapped is called 'H' zone.
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Structure of contractile Protein
Each thin filament (actin) is made of two 'F' actins helically wounded to each other. Two
filaments of another protein, tropomyosin runs close to it. A complex protein
Troponin is distributed at regular intervals on the tropomyosin.
lnl
Each myosin filament is made of many monomeric proteins called Meromyosins. Each
meromyosin has globular head with short arm and tails. Globular head has ATP binding
sites.
Mechanism of muscle contraction
• The mechanism of muscle contraction is explained by sliding mechanism

theory in which thin filament slide over thick filament.
• Muscle contraction start with signal sent by CNS via motor neuron.
Neural signal release neurotransmitter ( Acetyl choline) to generate action
potential in the sarcolemma.
• This causes the release of Ca ++ from sarcoplasmic reticulum.
• Ca++ activates actin which binds to the myosin head to form a cross bridge.
• These cross bridges pull the actin filaments causing them to slide over the
myosin filaments and thereby causing contraction.
• Ca++ are then returned to sarcoplasmic reticulum which inactivate the actin.
Cross
bridges are broken and the muscles relax.
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llddJlcJ
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Muscles are classified as:
Red fibres (aerobic muscles-) contain myoglobin that has plenty of mitochondria to use large
amount of oxygen stored in them.
White fibres-the muscle fibres containing less number of myoglobin are called white fibres.
Skeletal System
Framework of bones and cartilage forms the skeletal system. In human beings, it consists of
206 bones and some cartilages. The two principle division of skeletal system are:
1. Axial Skeleton (80 bones)- includes skull, vertebral column, sternum and ribs constitute
axial system.
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• The skull (22 bones) is composed of cranial and facial bones. Cranial (8 bones) forms
protective covering for brain (cranium). The facial region consists of 14 skeletal
systems that form front part of skull. Hyoid bone (U-shaped) forms the base of buccal
cavity.
• The middle ear bone (Malleus, Incus and Stapes) collectively called Ear Ossicles.
Skull joins with vertebral column with two occipital condyle.
• Vertebral column consists of 26 serially arranged vertebrae. First vertebra is atlas
that combines with occipital condyle. Other includes Cervical-7, thoracic -12, lumbar
-5, sacral - 1 coccoygeal -1.
• 12 pairs of ribs connected dorsally to vertebral column and ventrally to sternum. 11th
and 12th rib bones are not connected with sternum and are called floating
ribs.
Appendicular Skeleton- includes bones of limbs and girdles. Each limb contains 30 bones.
Uhu
- II l.Jt1
Upper Arm Lower Limb
Humerus, radius and ulna, 8-carpels, Femur, tibia and fibula, 7-tarsals, 5-metatarsals,
5-metacarpels, 14-phalanges, 14- phalanges, cup shaped patella cover the knee.
Pectoral and Pelvic girdle bones help in the articulation of the upper and the lower limbs
respectively with the axial skeleton.
Pectoral girdle consists of a clavicle and a scapula.
Pelvic girdle consists of two coxal bones. Each coxal bone is formed by the fusion of three
bones - ilium, ischium and pubis.
Joints - are points of contact between bones, or between bones and cartilage.
1. Fibrous joints- do not allow any movements. Present in flat skull bones to form cranium.
2. Cartilaginous joints- bones are held together with the help of cartilage present in
vertebrae. Permits limited movements.
3. Synovial joints- fluid filled synovial cavity, provide considerable movements. Ball and
socket joint, hinge joints, pivot joints, gliding joints etc.
Disorders of Muscular and Skeletal System
• Myasthenia gravis- auto immune disorder affecting neuromuscular junction

causing fatigue, weakening and paralysis of skeletal system.
• Muscular Dystrophy- degeneration of skeletal muscles due to genetic disorder.
• Osteoporosis - decreased bone mass in old age leading to chance of fracture due to
decreased estrogen.
• Arthritis- inflammation of joints.
• Gout- inflammation of joints due to accumulation of uric acid crystals.
• Tetany- Rapid spasms in muscle due to low Ca ++ in body fluid
CHAPTER-21
NEURAL CONTROL AND COORDINATION
• Coordination is the process through which two or more organs interact and
complement the function of each other.
• Neural system provides an organized network of point to point connection for quick
coordination. The endocrine system provides chemical integration through
hormones.
• Neural system of animals is composed of specialized cells called neuron, which can
detect, receive and transmit different kinds of stimuli. In hydra neural system is
composed of network of neuron. In insects it consists of brain and a number of
ganglia. Vertebrates have highly developed neural system.
• Central nervous system (CNS) includes brain and spinal cord. It is the site
for information processing and control.
Human N,eural
I
System
.L
Central
-
NeuralSystem
P·er"pheralNeuralSyste
m
• Peripheral nervous system includes all nerves associated with CNS. There are two
-types of nerve fibres-
• Afferent fibres- transmit impulses from tissue/organ to CNS.

• Efferent fibres- transmit regulatory impulses from CNS to concerned peripheral
organs.
Somatic neural systems relay impulses from CNS to skeletal muscles. Autonomic
neural system transmits impulses from CNS to involuntary system and smooth
muscles.
P'eriphe:ral neu al system
ym,p:atltatic.
Neuron as Structural and Functional Unit of Neural System
Neuron is made up of three major parts- cell body, dendrite and axon.
• Cell body contains cytoplasm, cell organelles and Nissl's granules. Short fibres
projecting out from cell body is called dendrites. The axon is long fibre having
branched structure at the end that terminates into knob like structure called synaptic
knob.
• Based on number of axon and dendrites neuron are of three types-
1. Multipolar- one axon and two or more dendrite found in cerebral cortex.
2. Bipolar- one axon and one dendrite found in retina of eyes.
3. Unipolar- cell body with only one axon found in embryonic stage.
D mint
hwan ccll
Axon - - - - - - t i
Awn
terminal
• There are two types of axon-

o Myelinated- fibres are enveloped with Schwann cells to form myelin sheath
around the axon. The gap between two myelin sheaths is called nodes of
Ranvier. Found in spinal and cranial nerves.
o Unmyelinated- fibre is enclosed by Schwann cells that do not form myelin
sheath around the axon. Found in autonomous and somatic
neural system.
Generation and Conduction of Nerve Impulse
• Ion channels are present in neural membrane which is selectively permeable to

different ions. When neuron is not conducting impulse (resting), axonal
membrane is more permeable to K+ ions and impermeable to Na+ ions.
• Ionic gradient across the resting membrane is maintained by active transport of ions
by sodium-potassium pump. This will develop positive charge outside the
axonal membrane and negative charge on inner side.
• The electrical potential difference across the resting membrane is called resting
potential.
• When stimulus is applied at site A, the membrane becomes permeable to Na+ ions
to make rapid influx of Na+ ions to create outer surface negatively charged and
inner membrane positively charged that create Action Potential or nerve
impulse.
• The nerve impulse from A moves to B in inner surface and B to A on outer
surface. This process is repeated several times to transmit the impulse.
• Nerve impulse is transmitted from one neuron to another neuron through
synapse.
• There are two types of synapse-
1. Electrical synapse- the membrane of pre and post synaptic neuron is very close to each
other and current flow directly from one neuron to another.
2. Chemical synapse- pre and post synaptic neuron is separated by fluid filled space
called
synaptic cleft. Neurotransmitters are involved in transmission of impulses.
Central Neural System -Brain is the central information processing organ of our body and
act as command and control centre. Human brain is protected by skull (cranium) and three
layers of cranial meninges- outer dura mater, middle arachnoid and inner pia mater.
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Brain can be divided 3 parts- forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain.
Forebrain- consists of cerebrum, thalamus and hypothalamus. Cerebrum is divided into

left and right cerebral hemispheres which are covered by cerebral cortex (grey matter).
Cerebral cortex contains sensory neuron, motor neuron and association area.
Association area controls complex functions like intersensory associations, memory and
communication.
Thalamus- cerebrum wraps around a structure called thalamus. It is a major

coordinating centre for sensory and motor signaling.
Hypothalamus controls the urge for eating, drinking and body temperature. They also
release hypothalamic hormones. Limbic system is involved in controlling sexual behavior
and expression of emotional reactions.
Midbrain is located between hypothalamus and pons of hindbrain. Dorsal portion consists
of four round lobes called corpora quadrigemina. They are involved in relay of impulses
back and forth between cerebrum, cerebellum, pons and medulla.
Hind brain consists of pons, medulla oblongata and cerebellum.
Pons consists of fibre tracts that interconnect different regions of the brain.
The medulla contains centres which control respiration, cardiovascular reflexes and gastric
secretions.
Cerebellum controls balance and posture.
Reflex action is a spontaneous autonomic mechanical response to a stimulus without the

will of the organism. It is controlled by spinal cord. The afferent neuron receives the signal
from sensory organs and transmits the impulse to CNS. The efferent neuron carries the
impulse from CNS to effector. Ex- knee-jerk reflex. The path followed by reflex action is
called reflex arc.
Aqurou,;
chamber
Blind .spol
Human Eye - spherical structure consists of three layers, external layer is sclera whose
anterior part is called cornea, middle layer choroid and innermost layer is called retina.
Retina contains three layers of cells - inner ganglion cells, middle bipolar cells and outer
photoreceptor cells.
There are two types of photoreceptor cells called rods and cones. The daylight (photopic)
vision and colour vision are functions of cones. The twilight (scotopic) vision is the
function of the rods.
Mechanism of Vision
The light rays of visible wavelength fall on retina through cornea and lens to generate
impulses in rods and cones. Photosensitive pigments opsin and retinal get dissociated due to
light to change its shape. Change in shape of opsin cause change of permeability to generate
action potential that is transmitted to brain via optic nerve.
Human Ears
Pinn
u: pcsin
ndow
Eusl c:lilim
tube
Divided into three regions: outer ear, middle ear and inner ear.
The middle ear contains three ossicles called malleus, incus and stapes. The fluid
filled inner ear is called the labyrinth, and the coiled portion of the labyrinth is
called cochlea.
The organ of corti contains hair cells that act as auditory receptors and is located on the
basilar membrane.
Mechanism of Hearing
External ear receives the sound wave and directs them to ear drum. Vibration of ear drum
leads to vibration of ear ossicles. The vibration reaches cochlea that generate wave in lymph.
The waves generate ripples in basilar membrane and hair cells in them. As a result, nerve
impulses are generated in afferent neuron that passes to brain via auditory nerves.
CHAPTER-22
CHEMICAL COORDINATION AND INTEGRATION
In animals, control and coordination is performed by neural system and endocrine system
jointly. As the nerve fibres do not innervate all cells of the body, the endocrine system is
required to coordinate the functions.
Endocrine Glands
• Endocrine glands are ductless glands. They release their secretion directly
into blood which is then transported to specific target organs to initiate a particular
metabolic change.
• The endocrine glands secrete chemicals called hormones.
• Hormones are non-nutrient chemicals which act as intercellular messengers and are
produced in trace amount.
Human Endocrine System
The endocrine glands and hormone producing tissues/cells are located in different parts of
the body. Gastrointestinal tract, kidney, liver and heart also produce small quantity of
hormones to control and coordinate the function of respective organs.
Hypothalamus contains several groups of neurosecretory cells called nuclei which produce
hormones. Hormones released by Hypothalamus regulate the synthesis and secretion of
pituitary hormones.
Hypothalamus produces two types of Hormones:

Hypo -
-
tbaJamus
In ibiting hormones
I
Releasing hormones
..
Soma1osta 1 fn
-
Go11 dou-opln r I sing hormon
(GnRH) -
• The hormones released from hypothalamus reaches the anterior pituitary through
portal circulatory system and regulate its function.
• The posterior pituitary is under direct control of hypothalamus.
Pituitary Gland is located in sella tursica, a bony cavity. It is attached to the hypothalamus
by a stalk.
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• Excess secretion of Growth Hormone causes over growth of the body

leading to gigantism and low secretion causes stunted growth called dwarfism.
• Prolactin stimulates growth of mammary gland and production of milk.
• TSH stimulates production and release of thyroid hormone.
• LH and FSH stimulate activity of the gonads. In male, LH stimulates synthesis
and secretion of androgen hormone from testis. In female, LH induces ovulation of
fully mature ovum from ovary.
• Oxytocin helps in contraction of uterus during child birth and milk ejection
from mammary glands.
• Vasopressin stimulates absorption of water and electrolyte in kidney.
• MSH acts on the melanocytes and regulates skin pigmentation.
The pineal Gland- located on dorsal side of forebrain and release melatonin hormone that
helps to regulate diurnal rhythm of body like sleeps wake cycle and body temperature.
Thyroid Gland- composed of two lobes on either side of trachea connected by isthmus.
-:r
Thyroid gland is made of follicles and stromal tissues:
hyroid Glands
follicles
A
Strvmi.1 tli.:.ve
Te1ta othyron;ne (id) Md Trndothyronlne thyroc l,itocin
fral \.._/
• Iodine is essential for synthesis of thyroid hormones. Deficiency of iodine leads

to hypothyroidism (Goitre). During pregnancy, hypothyroidism may cause
stunted growth of baby and mental retardation.
• Thyroid hormones regulate the basal metabolic rate. They support the process of red
blood cell formation. They control the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins
and fats.
Thyrocalcitonin hormone regulates blood calcium levels.
Parathyroid Gland- located on the back side of thyroid gland, secretes peptide hormone
called parathyroid hormone (PIH). PIH regulates the calcium ion concentration in the blood.
It also helps in reabsorption of calcium from renal tubules and digestive tracts.
Thymus- located on the dorsal side of heart and the aorta. This gland releases peptide
hormone thymosins that help in differentiation of I-Lymphocytes for cell-mediated
immunity. It also promotes production of antibodies to provide humeral immunity.
Adrenal Gland - located on anterior part of each kidney, composed of two types of tissues
central adrenal medulla and outside adrenal cortex. Adrenal medulla secretes adrenaline
and noradrenaline hormone commonly called as catecholamines. These hormones are also
called as emergency hormone. These hormones increase alertness, pupilary dilation,
sweating, heart beat, rate of respiration, glycogenolysis.
The adrenal cortex secretes glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids. Glucocorticoids

stimulate gluconeogenesis. Mineralocorticoids regulate water and electrolyte contents of the
body.
Pancreas - acts as both endocrine and exocrine gland. Endocrine pancreas consists of "Islets
of Langerhans" which contain a-cells and -cells. The a-cells secrete hormone glucagon and
-cells secrete insulin. Both hormones are involved in maintenance of blood sugar levels.
• Glucagon is a peptide hormone that stimulates glycogenolysis resulting in increased

blood sugar (hyperglycemia).
• Insulin is a peptide hormone that play major role in regulation of glucose
homeostasis. It triggers rapid movement of glucose from blood to hepatocytes and
adipocytes resulting in decreased blood glucose levels (hypoglycemia).
Testis - perform dual functions as a primary sex organ as well as endocrine glands. Leydig
cells or interstitial cells produce androgen mainly testosterone which regulate maturation
of primary sex organs and spermatogenesis.
Ovary-produce two groups of steroid hormones called estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen
is synthesized and secreted by growing ovarian follicles. After ovulation, ruptured ovum
called corpus luteum, secretes progesterone. Estrogen produces wide range actions like
growth of female secondary sex organs, development of growing ovarian follicles, and
regulation of female sexual behaviour.
Progesterone regulates pregnancy.
Hormones of Heart, Kidney and Gastrointestinal Tract
• Atrial wall of heart secretes peptide hormone called atrial natriuretic

factor (ANF) which decreases blood pressure.
• The juxtaglomerular cells of kidney produce erythropoietin hormone which stimulate
erythropoiesis.
• Gastro-intestinal tract secrete four major peptide hormones:
1. Gastrin stimulates the secretion of hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen.
2.Secretin acts on the exocrine pancreas and stimulates secretion of water
and bicarbonate ions.
3. Cholecystokinin (CCK) stimulates the secretion of pancreatic enzymes and
bile juice
4. Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) inhibits gastric secretion and motility.
Mechanism of Hormone Action
• Hormone produce their effects on target tissues by binding to specific protein called
hormone receptors located in the target tissue.
• Binding of hormones to receptor leads to the formation of hormone receptor
complex. This binding leads to change in target tissue.
" o r m o n ( .p;., FSH)
tor
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m.bTan
(G ·ncralimt uf second m=n er)

( :Ydic AMP r C;;i")
Bloch mi .ii rcsporu'

.ij,
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Ph s\olo ·cat responses
( .g., ovarian growth)
On the basis of chemical nature, hormones are grouped as-
1. Peptide, polypeptide and protein hormones- insulin, glucagon, pituitary

hormone, hypothalamic hormones.
2. Steroids- cortisol, testosterone, progesterone.
3. Idothyronines- thyroid hormones.
4. Amino acid derivatives- epinephrine.
The hormones that bind with membrane bound receptors normally do not enter the target
cells but generate second messenger which in turn regulate cellular metabolism.
The hormones (steroid hormones) which interact with intracellular receptors mostly
regulate gene expression or chromosome function by interaction with hormone-receptor
complex with the genome. These biochemical actions results in physiological and
developmental effects.
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NOTES
XI SCIENCE
BIOLOGY

Class 11 Biology Notes

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PREETISUDHAJI JUNIOR COLLEGE,

Principal Dnyanesh Dange Sir

The objects exhibiting growth, development, reproduction, respiration, responsiveness and

Unique features of living organism:-

1. Growth- Living organisms grow in mass and number. A multicellular organism

Biological nomenclature- It is the universally accepted principles to provide scientific name

Mango- Mangifera indica.

Human beings- Home sapience.

Universal rules of nomenclature:-

1. Biological names are generally in Latina and written in italics.

• Classification- It is the process by which anything is grouped into convenient

A taxonomic category is a rank or level in the hierarchical classification of organism. There

Taxonomic hierarchy is shown below:-

• Species- Species are the natural population of individuals or a group of population

• Artificial system of classification

Natural system of classification-Takes into consideration comparable study of a number of

Phylogenetic System of Classification- Based on the evolutionary relationship of

Kingdom system of classification

• Two kingdom : Plantae Animalia

1. Monera- The kingdom includes all prokaryotes- mycoplasma, bacteria, actinomycetes

2. Unicellular, prokaryotes and contain the most primitive of living forms

Example- Blue-green algae, Bacteria, etc.

Protista- Kingdom Protista includes Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates, Eugleoids, slime

1. It includes all unicellular and colonial eukaryotes.

produce fruiting bodies bearing spores.

• All protozoans are heterotrophs and live

• They are achlorophyllous, heterotrophic, spore forming, non-vesicular

1. Plasmogamy, fusion of male and female gametes.

Ascomycetes (The sac fungi)

• They are saprophytic, decomposers, parasitic or coprophilous (growing on dung).

Example- Neurospora, Asperigillus, Claviceps etc.

Basidiomycetes (The club fungi)

• The mycelium is branched and septate.

Deuteromycetes (The fungi imperfect)

• Only vegetative and asexual phase is known.

1. Eukaryotic, chlorophyll bearing organism.

Virus, Viroids and Lichens

Five kingdom system of classification do not includes Virus, Viroids and

• Plant body is thallus, which may be unicellular, colonial, filamentous

and sexual reproduction by fusion of two gametes which may be lsogamous

Green Algae Brown Algae Red Algae

Mostly fresh water and

Unicellular organisms Unicellular species are

Chlorophyll a and b type. Chlorophyll a and c type. Chlorophyll a and d type.

Cell wall contains Cell wall contains cellulose and poly-

Fucoxanthin is absent Fucoxanthin present. Phycoerythrine is present.

Zoospores present. Zoospores present. Zoospores absent.

Chlamydomonas, Focus, Sargassum, Polysiphonia, Gelidium, Porphyra

Bryophytes Hepaticopsida (Liverworts)

archantia male thallus Marchantia female thallus

Angiosperms are further classified into:

1. Single cotyledons. 1. Two cotyledons.

Cellular Oragn sys-rem

• Members of this phylum are commonly known as sponges. Mostly marine,

• Nutrition, respiration and excretion is performed by pathway of water

Phylum Cnidaria ( Coelenterate)-

• Commonly known as the Comb Jellies or Sea Walnuts.

Phylum Platyhelminthes (The Flat worms)

• Dorso-ventrally flattened body, bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, acoelomate

• Example- Taenia, Planaria, Fasciola.

Phylum Aschelminthes (The Round Worm)

• They may be free-living, aquatic, terrestrial or parasitic in plants or animals.

• Aquatic or terrestrial, bilaterally symmetrical, segmented with organ system level

Economically important - Apis (honey bee), Bombyx (silk worm).