Major Silvicultural Systems

UNIT 2.
MAJOR SILVICULTURAL
SYSTEMS AND THEIR ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES
ADVANCED SILVICULTURE (SFB 557)
BSc 3rd Year 2nd Semester
IoF Hetauda, 2080

UNIT 2. MAJOR SILVICULTURAL SYSTEMS AND THEIR
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
2.1 Clear felling system 2.5 Accessory systems
2.1.1 With artificial regeneration 2.5.1 Two storied high forest
2.1.2 With natural regeneration system
2.2 Seed tree system 2.5.2 High forest with reserve
2.3 Shelter wood systems system
2.3.1 Uniform system 2.6 Coppice systems
2.3.2 Group 2.6.1 Simple coppice
2.3.3 Strip 2.6.2 Coppice with standards
2.3.4 Irregular 2.6.3 Coppice with reserves
2.4 Selection system 2.6.4 Other variations of coppice
2.4.1 Single tree selection systems
2.4.2 Group selection system 2
1.2 Classification of silvicultural systems
7. Simple coppice
A) High forest B) Coppice 8. Coppice with standards
9. Coppice with reserves
systems systems 10. Pollard systems
11. Other variations of coppice systems
a. Systems with b. Systems with

c. Accessory
concentrated diffused
systems
regeneration regeneration
1. Clear felling systems 3. Selection systems 4. Two-storied high forest
• With artificial • With natural • Strip
• Single tree selection 5. High forest with reserve
regeneration regeneration • Wedge
• Group selection 6. Improvement felling
2. Shelterwood systems
• Uniform • Strip
• Group • Irregular 3
2.1 Clear felling system
Silviculture systems: Clear felling (or clearcut) System
• Clear-felling systems are those silvicultural systems in which the

mature crop is removed in one operation to be regenerated, most
frequently, artificially but sometimes naturally also.
• Clear felling is the most common regeneration felling method

associated with even-aged management of sun-loving species.
4
A diagram
depicting the
single cut in
the clearcut
system.
5
• Clear felling, also known as or clearcut, is a silvicultural system in which most or all
trees in an area are uniformly cut down.
• It is the most common and economically profitable silvicultural systems for logging.
• There are several types of clear felling systems, including block-clear felling system,
clear felling in patches, the clear strip system, and the alternate strip system.
• A clear felling system is a high forest silvicultural system that involves successive clear
felling of equal or equi-productive areas in one operation.
6
According to definition, the entire crop of the coupe should be
felled and removed in one operation but in practices following
variations are observed.
1. Retention of some mature trees as frost protection measures or
as an insurance against failure or as nurse crop to facilitate
establishment of forest tender species.
2. Retention of promising groups of saplings and poles to prevent
unnecessary sacrifice of immature crop of the desired species.
3. Isolated saplings and poles are ordinarily not retained as they
may develop in to wolf trees.
7
• The clear felling system: The clear felling system is defined as a

silvicultural system in which equal (or equi-extensive) or equi-productive
areas of mature crop are successively clear-felled in one operation to be
regenerated most frequently, artificially but sometimes naturally also.
• The area to be clear-felled each year in uniformly productive sites is 1/n

of the total area allotted to this system, where n is the number of years in
the rotation and is usually referred to annual coupe.
8
The Clear felling system by compartment
• Forest is divided into compartment, sub-compartment and
annual/periodic coupes based on
oequal (or equi-extensive) or
oequi-productive
• Felling is concentrated in annual/periodic coupes
9
Clear felling (or clearcut) in equal (or equi-extensive) area
Yr. 17
2 ha
Total area = 32 ha Yr. 1 Yr. 2 Yr. 3 Yr. 4
Rotation = 16 years
Yr. 5 Yr. 5 Yr. 7 Yr. 8
32
Annual coupe area = = 2 ha. Yr. 9 Yr. 10 Yr. 11 Yr. 12
16
Yr. 13 Yr. 14 Yr. 15 Yr. 16
10
Clear felling in equi-productive area
River
Lowest productive area
Total area = 32 ha Highest productive area
Rotation = 4 years
32 Yr. 3
Annual coupe = = 8 ha.
4 5 ha
8 ha 8 ha Yr. 1
Yr. 4
Yr 1 Yr 2 12 ha
9 ha Yr. 2
8 ha 8 ha
Yr 3 Yr 4 6 ha
Equal (equi-extensive) area

Equi-productive area 11
Variations based on methods of regeneration

2.1.1 artificial
2.1.2 natural
12
2.1.1 Clear felling with artificial regeneration
Causes of preferring artificial regeneration
• It’s the surest and quickest method of improving crop composition
• It facilitates introduction of fast growing and high yielding exotics
• It gives better financial returns as regeneration completes quickly
• The area can be opened for grazing sooner
Methods of Artificial Regeneration
A. Departmental Plantation
B. Taungya
13
A. Departmental Plantation
• Stock map of the area is prepared
• All trees are marked except those retained and auctioned
• Felling refuse is burnt after exporting the material
• Plantation area is cleared and soil map and suitability map is prepared
• Fencing is done
• Soil work should be completed before one and half month
• After weathering the soil is filled back in the pit
14
B. Taungya
• Taungya (Taung - hill and ya - cultivation) is Burmese word
• The plantations in which forest crops are raised along with agricultural crops is called
Taungya system.
• First evolved in Myanmar in 1850's for replanting vast teak areas.
• Modified form of shifting cultivation
• Labors are allowed to raise crops along with forest plantation
• After 4-5 years, they move to another patch of land
15
B. Taungya
Advantages of Taungya
• It is cheaper method of artificial regeneration
• Labor problem is solved and provide work to the landless labors
• It utilizes the site fully and contribute in the food production
Disadvantages of Taungya
• Loss of soil fertility and exposure of the soil
• Increase the possibility of erosion due to ploughing
• Increase the danger of epidemics
• Legal complications are created 16
2.1.2 Clear felling with natural regeneration
It is promoted when it is absolutely certain otherwise there will be greater cost involved. It may
be obtained from:
• Seed
• Advance growth
Seed - The area may get seeded from the following sources:
• Seed stored in the area – It may come from the seed lying on the ground
• Seed received from outside – It is also obtained from the seed reaching the area from outside
Advance growth
• It is the natural regeneration from advance growth (established seedling, sapling and young
poles) after clear felling
• Damaged advance growth has to be cut back to produce clean and vigorous new shoots
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Silvicultural System
https://www.flickr.com/phot
os/esagor/14921451133
Regeneration
Harvesting Tending
https://www.forestryimages.org/browse/deta https://www.forestryimages.org/browse/det
il.cfm?imgnum=5486110
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ail.cfm?imgnum=1169029
Clear Felling System
• Basics
• Variations
oRetention
oAnnual/periodic
▪ Equi-extensive (equal)
▪ Equiproductive
oRegeneration
oFelling patterns
▪ The Clear Strip System
▪ The Alternative Strip System A diagram depicting the single cut in
▪ Wedge clear felling system 19
the clearcut system.
Major variations based on felling patterns

A. The Clear Strip System
B. The Alternative Strip System
C. Wedge clear felling system
20
A. The Clear Strip
System: Clear felling
is done in the form
of strips which
progress successfully
in one direction
(usually against the
wind) across the
regeneration area.
21
A. Clear strip system
Severance cutting (or
severance felling) :
The felling of a narrow
strip between two
stands or sub-
compartments in
order to increase the
windfirmness of one
before the other is
felled.
22
Matthews (1989)
A. Strip clear felling system
Arrangement of strips in clear strip system

23
Objects felling on strip
• To regenerate the area naturally by seed from adjoining areas
• To protect the young crop against wind, snow, insect or fungal attack
Pattern of felling
• The clear felled strips in this system are separated by un-felled forests of sufficient
width which may be a multiple of the width of clear felled strip.
• For example, if the felling period is 4 years, regeneration will have to be divided
into 4 cutting sections marked I to IV.
Method of Regeneration
• It can be regenerated artificially or naturally depending on the circumstances
Character of the crop produced

• Production of even aged crop as each strip can be treated as sub compartment 24
Advantages
• All advantage of clear felling system
• It also maintains the aesthetic beauty and there is less deterioration of soil
Disadvantages
• All disadvantages of clear felling system except site deterioration and
aesthetic Consideration
• Protection of regeneration in strips is difficult and costly
• Burning of felling refuse in the strips often results in fire spreading to the
un felled forests
Application
• Pinus keshiya forest in Assam, India 25
B. Alternative strip system
Clear felling is done in the
form of strips which alternate
with un-felled strips of similar
width.
26
Pattern of Felling
• The width of the felled and un-felled strips varies from place to place. In
France, clear felled strips 40 to 50 m and un-felled strips 15-20m. In
America, width of the felled strip is recommended double that of the un-
felled strip.
• The period after which the alternate un-felled strip is felled also varies
according to circumstances.
27
Method of Regeneration
• The initially felled trees are regenerated naturally but the un-
felled strips may be regenerated naturally and artificially
depending on the circumstances.
Pattern of Crop
• It depends upon the period after which the alternate strips are
felled and the rotation. But usually it is even aged.
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Advantages
• It supplies seed to the felled strips from two sides
• There is less damage to seed bearers from wind
• It affords complete overhead light for the natural regeneration of light
demanders
Disadvantages
• It does not afford any protection to the regeneration of shade bearing
species
• Fire protection is very difficult
Application
• Experimentally applied to the Sal forest of Dehradun with clear felled strip
of 12m and un-felled strips of 36m
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C. Wedge clear felling system
30
Matthews (1989)
Advantages 2.1 Clear felling system
• It is simple and doesn’t require high degree of skill and easy to practice
• As fellings are concentrated, yield per unit area is more consequently cost of felling
and extraction is low
• Concentration of felling facilitates mechanization for extraction
• It is the method of regulating composition of new crop and introducing fasting
growing species
• Supervision is easy for felling, extraction, regeneration of the area
• No damage to new crop as all trees are removed in one operations except advance
growth
• If properly tended, the even aged crop has trees with comparatively cleaner and more
cylindrical boles because of horizontal competition
• It reduces cost of regeneration operations and shortens the rotation as it establishes
sooner and tended intensively in the early stages
• The area can be opened for grazing sooner
• The success or failure of regeneration work is clear by the end of second year 31
Disadvantages
• It is the most artificial system of all silvicultural systems
• Greater danger of soil deteriorations as the soil remains exposed
till the canopy closes
• Invasion of weeds and grasses increases in the early stages. It
may increase fire hazards
• It produces even aged crops which are less resistant to damage
by snow and wind and insects, fungi etc.
• When first applies, it also removes immature crops
• It doesn’t make use of site factors fully
• The devastated appearance of large clear felled areas makes the
system undesirable from the aesthetic point of view 32
Application
• This system should not be applied in the areas, which are geologically
unstable.
• This system is most suited to light demanders.
• It is the only system by which forests composed of slow growing species
of little economic value can be replaced by new crops of fast growing
and valuable species for industrial and other uses.
• It is the simplest of all high forest systems as it does not require a high
degree of skill in carrying out its marking. Therefore it is easy to
practice.
• As the soil remains exposed till the canopy closes, there is great danger
of deterioration of soil and the possibility of soil erosion increases. So,
this system should not be applied in sloppy and erosion prone areas. 33
Consideration of Application
Factors of Locality
• The climatic factors affect the choice of species
• Geology and soil also affect the system as geologically unstable
areas are not suitable
• Soil should be tested to assess moisture and nutrient status
• Biotic factors should also be considered
34
Potential productivity of the site
• Potential productivity of the site is assessed and silvicultural
technique suitably modified to ensure rapid growth of new
plants after clear felling
Species and composition of crop
• It is the only system by which forests composed of slow growing
species of little economic value can be replaced by new crops of
fast growing and valuable species for industrial and other uses.
35
Regeneration
• The success of any system depends entirely on the success of
regeneration
• Adequate quantities of genetically superior seed or plants and sufficient
labour should be arranged well in time
Tending Operation - The objective is to allow the desired species to grow
rapidly.
• Weeding
• Cleaning
• Thinning
Character of the crop
• The resultant crop is even aged
• System gives a normal series of age gradations 36
2.2 Seed tree system
• The stand is clear felled except for a few trees which are left standing
singly or in groups to produce seed for regeneration.
• An even-aged system in which a new age class develops from seeds that
germinate in fully-exposed micro-environments after removal of the
previous stand, except for a small number of trees left to provide seed.
• After a new crop is established these seed trees may be removed or left
indefinitely.
• Seed trees are retained only for seeds not for shelter.
• All trees are cut except for a small number of widely dispersed trees
retained for seed production and to produce a new age class in fully
exposed microenvironment.
• Seed trees are usually removed after regeneration is established.
37
• The system in which an appropriate number of individual trees is left across
an area to provide seed for the production of the next crop of trees.
• While there is no provision for improving genetics above what is already
present on-site, the method is a good choice for naturally regenerating
shade-intolerant species.
• It is important to evaluate any given stand to determine whether or not
seed-tree cutting is a sound option.
• If you have the desired species of adequate quality and you properly manage
them, seed-tree cutting can provide satisfactory results.
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Major considerations:
• Preharvest Activities
• Desirable Seed Trees
• How Many Trees to Leave?
• Distribution of Trees
• Postharvest Activities
• Variations/Kinds of Seed Tree System
• Advantages and Disadvantages
• Application
39
Major considerations: Preharvest Activities
• For seed-tree cutting to be successful, you must control undesirable
vegetation to allow desirable seedlings to establish.
• This work usually starts 4 to 5 years before harvest that will give some control
of undesirable species and also prepare a seedbed.
• It is important to remember that most light-seeded species require exposed
mineral soil for proper germination and seedling establishment.
• Timber stand improvement (TSI) methods should be followed.
• Once preharvest preparation activities are complete, trees to be left for seed
production can be marked. 40
Major considerations: Desirable Seed Trees
1. The following characteristics are desirable for all seed trees: tall,
straight, well-pruned, well-developed crown, average seed production,
disease-free, superior volume growth, and wind-disseminated seeds.
2. The trees must be old enough to produce abundant fertile seed. These should
form the dominant or co-dominant class.
3. Wind firmness
• Trees shouldn’t be easily thrown or broken by the wind
• Shallow rooted species, on moist soils are not applicable
• Trees with open foliage crowns are more likely to stand safely against wind
than those with dense crowns
4. If you cannot leave these “superior” trees, use another form of regeneration to
start the next stand. With proper management and careful thinning during the
next rotation, seed-tree cutting should be a viable option when regeneration is
next required. 41
Major considerations: How Many Trees to Leave?
The number of required leave trees is a function of the following:
• desired amount of regeneration
• seed production by individual tree
• expected seed survival
• height of trees
• projected tree mortality (loss)
42
Major considerations: Distribution of Seed Trees
• Select and mark trees with adequate distribution to provide seeds fully to the entire
area.
• The direction of the prevailing wind at the time of seed fall dictates the distribution
and location of seed trees.
• Trees should be left along the harvest boundary on the side from which prevailing
winds will come.
• Trees to be harvested in the area should be left along this boundary, or if the
adjacent stand of trees is deemed to be of acceptable quality, you could expect
seeds to blow into the regeneration area from that source.
• Conversely, no trees are needed on the edge opposite from the direction of
prevailing winds.
• Perhaps the easiest way to approach the task of ensuring proper seed-tree
distribution is to consider leave trees in terms of rows that run perpendicular to the
prevailing wind. 43
• For example, if the
average height of the
seed trees is 75 feet, the
rows of leave trees
could be about 150 feet
apart.
• In terms of positions
within rows, seed trees
are typically spaced a
distance apart that is
equal to the average
height of the trees.
• So, in the example of 75-
foot trees, the distance
between trees within
rows would be 75 feet. Mississippi State University (2020)
44
45
Major considerations: Postharvest Activities
• After harvest activities are completed, activities need to be taken to reduce the debris
load and make final preparations of the seedbed.
• Evaluate seed-tree areas to assess regeneration.
• As soon as adequate density and stocking of regeneration is achieved, remove the seed
trees. If seed trees are not removed, they will have a negative impact on the
development of established regeneration. They also will continue to disseminate seeds
across the area, and that can cause an overstocking of seedlings.
• It is also essential to remove them, or even cut them and leave them if necessary, to
promote development of the next crop of seedlings.
46
Major considerations: Variations/Kinds of Seed Tree System
1. Uniform seed tree system: In single seed tree system, individual trees are more or less
uniformly distributed throughout the block.
2. Group seed tree system: In a group seed tree system, seed trees are left in the block in
small patches. These patches may be arranged in irregular groups or in strips.
3. Strips or rows method: In this system, seed trees are left in strips or rows.
47
Major considerations: Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
• Lower regeneration costs if natural regeneration is easy to secure.
• Logging is concentrated on relatively small areas. This keeps logging and transportation costs
low.
• Furnishes a bare exposed site for the start of natural regeneration and hence may be the good
method for those species which require such a germination bed.
• It is simple and easy method to practice.
• Ample opportunities for phenotypic selection - Better manipulation of species and genetics
than with other partial cutting systems when natural regeneration is relied on (more choice for
leave-trees).
• Resolves issue of regeneration for species that are difficult to regenerate.
• Aesthetically better than clearcuts where the number and arrangement of leave-trees is visually
pleasing.
• May be advantageous for wildlife, especially species that use large living or dead trees for
habitat depends on the size, species, and vigour of the leave-trees and their duration on the
48
site.
Major considerations: Advantages and Disadvantages
Disadvantages
• Exposure of the site takes place to a degree only slightly less than in clear cutting with
similar disadvantages - of all silvicultural systems involving partial cutting, exposes leave-
trees to the most wind. Should not be used with species, sites, or stand types with a high
wind hazard. Losses should be expected on high hazard sites (will depend on individual
tree characteristics).
• Higher harvesting costs, compared with clearcut systems, if seed trees are removed (two-
stage harvest). Also, silviculture costs may be higher if regeneration damage is excessive
during seed tree removal.
• It is not considered as much aesthetic compared with shelter wood and selection but may
not have an advantage over clearcutting in situations where maintaining a moderate crown
cover is desirable (for aesthetics, recreation, water, wildlife, soil, or microsite objectives).
• May generate lower harvest volume than with clearcut systems if seed trees are not
removed.
• Applicable with only deep rooted species 49
Major considerations: Application
• It has been applied in the stand of Pinus resinosa (Norway pine) in the
Minnesota national forest in USA.
• Seed-tree regeneration is not appropriate for areas that flood frequently, on
those areas with steep topography, or on shallow soils.
• On frequently flooded areas, seeds are often washed away, and areas with steep
topography may experience down-slope washing during heavy rainfall. Seedling
density may be unacceptably high in the areas where seeds collect, while being
too low across the remainder of the area. Areas with extremely shallow soils will
suffer excessive damage to seed trees due to windthrow.
• Remember, these trees are highly vulnerable to the forces of nature once they
are left with no surrounding vegetation.
• Seed-tree regeneration works best in areas of fairly level topography with
adequate soil moisture during the growing season for seedlings to survive and
develop. 50
2.3 Shelterwood systems
Shelterwood system : This method regenerates a new stand
under the cover of a partial canopy called a shelter wood. It
is the most complicated of the even-aged systems.
• Shelterwood systems are those silvicultural systems in
which the mature crop is removed in a series of
operations, the first of which is the seeding felling and the
last is the final felling.
• This method is used where a sharp change of
environmental conditions might prevent success
following clear cutting.
Teagasc (2017)
51
Regeneration Felling - A felling made with a view to inviting or assisting
regeneration. It includes Regeneration Felling, Secondary Felling and Final Felling.
A. Regeneration/ Seeding Felling – Opening the canopy of a mature stand to
provide conditions for securing regeneration from the seed of trees retained
Before WWF Nepal (2020)
for that purpose. Two considerations:
1. Selection of trees to be retained
2. Distance between trees retained
Regeneration felling in shelterwood system
After
52
Regeneration Felling
B. Secondary Felling: A regeneration felling
carried out between the seeding felling
and the final felling in order to gradually
remove the shelter and admit increasing
light to regenerated crop. It is also called
intermediate felling. Bédard et al. (2019)
C. Final Felling: The removal of the last seed or shelter trees after regeneration
has been established. It is also known as removal cut.
53
Few Terms
• Working Circle – The unit of forest management in a working plan. It is a forest area
organized with a particular object and subject to one and the same silvicultural system
and the same set of working plan prescriptions. In certain circumstances, working circle
may overlap.
• Felling series (FS) – A forest area forming the whole or part of a Working Circle and
delimited so as (i) to distribute felling and regeneration to suit local conditions and (ii) to
maintain or create a normal distribution of age classes. The yield is calculated separately
for each FS which should have an independent representation of age classes. Each FS is a
self-contained unit of management with a separate calculation of yield and a separate
series of silvicultural operations. 54
Few Terms
• Felling cycle – The time that elapses between successive main fellings on
the same area. It may vary from 10 to 30 years depending on the intensity
of working.
• Annual coupe – Felling series is divided in to a number of Annual Coupes
equal to the number of years in the rotation. It is a felling area, usually one
of an annual series preferably numbered as Roman numerals I, II, III etc.
• Rotation – The planned number of years between the formation or
regeneration of a crop and its final felling.
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Types of Shelterwood system
2.3.1 Uniform system
2.3.2 Group system
2.3.3 Strip
2.3.4 Irregular
Irregular shelterwood system Matthews (1989)
56
Uniform shelterwood system Group shelterwood system
Types of Shelterwood system: 2.3.1 Uniform system
Canopy is uniformly opened up over the whole area of the compartment to
obtain uniform regeneration.
Method of Regeneration - It is mainly natural though it has been supplemented
by artificial regeneration.
Tending
• After the seedling felling, the slash left in the area is cut and collected away
form the seed bearers and burnt during winter. If not possible, it is pushed
into groove.
• Weeding and cleaning are done regularly till the area is completely
regenerated.
Character of Crop
• The crop produced is even aged. However, it is not as even aged as the clear
felling system 57
Regeneration Period
• To ensure that the entire forest area is felled and regenerated systematically
within the rotation, it is necessary to divide the rotation into as many parts
as the number by which the rotation is divisible by the time taken to
regenerate area naturally.
• The regeneration period is the period required to regenerate the whole of a
periodic block.
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Regeneration Period
Length of the regeneration period - The period required to regenerate an area is
estimated on the basis of experience. The following are some important factors
which affect the length of regeneration period:
1. Frequency of seed years
2. Light requirement
3. Other climatic factors
4. Soil conditions
5. Condition of grass and other competing weed growth
6. Incidence of grazing and browsing
7. Fire 59
Regeneration Period
1. Frequency of seed years: For the species in which seed years are frequent, the
regeneration period will be shorter than for those in which they occur at long intervals.
2. Light requirement: Light demanders require shorter regeneration period than that
required for shade bearers as their regeneration requires shelter for a longer time
3. Other climatic factors: In areas experiencing extremely high or extremely low
temperatures, a longer regeneration period is required. Similarly, areas with deficient
rainfall or long dry season after monsoon rains, require longer regeneration period.
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Regeneration Period
4. Soil conditions: Excess or deficiency of moisture, deficiency of nutrients, thick
layer of undecomposed organic matter, seasonal deficiency of aeration due to
water logging or imbalance in the constituents of soil air, take a heavy toll of
seedling aeration and delay establishment, necessitating a longer regeneration
period.
5. Condition of grass and other competing weed growth: Dense growth of grass
and shrubs is very unfavorable to regeneration. In higher hills, snowfall flatten
out on the seedlings and kill them. Thus, denser the growth of grass and
weeds, the longer is the regeneration period.
61
Regeneration Period
6. Incidence of grazing and browsing: Uncontrolled grazing and browsing is
very harmful for regeneration; therefore, greater the incidence of grazing
and browsing, the longer is the regeneration period.
7. Fire: Accidental fires destroy regeneration. Therefore, in areas where
fires occur more frequently, longer regeneration period has to be
adopted.
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Periodic Block (PB)
• Part or parts of a forest set aside to be regenerated or otherwise treated during a
specified period.
• Example: If the rotation is 120 years and it takes 30 years to regenerate naturally,
there will be 4 periodic blocks as shown in the Table below.
Table showing Distribution of Age Classes in the Forest
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Periodic Block (PB)
• Numbering of PBs and works carried out therein – When the allotment of areas to
PBs is fixed, it is customary to number them as I, II, III, IV and so on depending on
the number of periodic blocks in the felling series or the Working Circle.
• The regeneration operations are carried out in PB I as an established convention.
• Using the example of 4 PBs, silvicultural operations to be carried out in various PBs
will be as follows: Table showing PBs and respective works
64
Periodic Block (PB)
• The area allotted to any periodic block is allotted to the next periodic block at the
end of the period. Thus each are moves from one periodic block to another in the
sequence as shown in following Figure.
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Advantages
• Little risk of soil deterioration and erosion and soil is adequately protected
• There is less danger of weed invasion as regeneration operations are carried out under
the shelter of old crop
• The young crop is protected against adverse climatic factors such as frost, cold wind etc
• As the regeneration is obtained from the seeds of the best selected trees, the new crop is
superior
• The system is fairly flexible with the result that it is used for regeneration of both light
demanders and shade bearers
• The growing space is fully utilized as the regeneration grows under the shelter of older
trees
• Production of larger sized trees and larger volume per unit area
• Easier supervision as the work is fairly concentrated
• It is preferable from the aesthetic point of view
66
Disadvantages
• As the over wood is removed more than one operation, the removal of trees may
damage regeneration
• The isolated seed bearers are susceptible to be thrown away or broken by wind
• In the species with long interval in seed years, there may be invasion of weeds
• Natural regeneration of the area is as costly or even costlier than the artificial
regeneration in species with longer regeneration period
67
Application
It is suitable under the following conditions:
• Where regeneration requires protection against adverse climatic factors
during initial stage of development
• Area is prone to soil erosion and invasion of weeds
It is not suitable under following conditions:
• Where wind storms occur frequently and may result in uprooting the seed
bearers
• Where the slope of the area is very steep and very rugged
• Where the seed of old crop is not suitable for use due to infertility or defects
Examples
Pinus roxburghii forest in Kangra (HP) and Chakarata (Uttarakhand) 68
Types of Shelterwood system:
2.3.2 Group system
• Regeneration fellings are carried out in
scattered groups either because of the advance
growth in those groups or to induce
regeneration and spread centrifugally finally
covering the whole area Smallest circle for
final felling, medium
• First developed by Karl Geyer of Germany circle or secondary
felling, and largest
• Its generally known as Gayer’s or Bavarian
circle for seeding
Femelschalag felling. 69
Types of Shelterwood system: 2.3.2 Group system
Pattern of Felling
• Locate groups of promising advance growth
• Seeding felling is done on the periphery all around them
• If the groups of advance growth are not adequate, some gaps are created by felling trees in small
groups to enable regeneration
• When regeneration appears, secondary felling is done and seeding felling around natural foci
• When regeneration established, final felling is done
• Simultaneously, secondary fellings are done in the seeding felled peripheral strips round them and a
fresh seeding felling in rings round them
• Regeneration spreads centrifugally from these natural as well as artificially created nuclei as a result
of seeding, secondary and final felling 70
Diagram showing the pattern of felling in groups reference to numbers

1. Existing nuclei of advance growth, where secondary felling will be
done to help the advance growth to grow up
1. At a time of secondary felling in 1, seeding felling will be done in ring 2 to enlarge the nucleus
2. At the time of final felling in 1, secondary felling in 2, seeding felling will be done in 3.
3. At the time of final felling in 2, secondary felling will be done in ring 3 and a seeding felling in ring
4.
4. At the time of final felling in ring 3, secondary felling will be done in ring 4 and seeding felling in 5.
After this, final felling will be done in 4 and secondary felling in space 5. Ultimately final felling will
be done in areas marked 5. 71
Diagram showing the

pattern of felling in
groups reference to
numbers
72
Bédard et al. (2019)
Other Considerations
• Light demanders require bigger gaps and wider rings than the shade bearers
• In mixed crops, size of the gaps, width of the rings and openings to be made depend
upon the desired proportion between the light demanders and shade bearers
• Gaps proceed against the direction of wind where there is risk of wind damage
• Tending - Slash disposal after felling followed by weeding, cleaning and shrub cutting as
and when necessary after the regeneration appears
• Character of Crop - Young crop produced is not so even aged as of the Uniform system
because it is produced by a series of seeding felling carried out in successive concentric
circular strips. 73
Advantages
• The young crop develops in a more natural way than it does in the Uniform system because
natural regeneration appears sporadically rather than uniformly all over the area at one
time
• The young regeneration continues to be protected by the adjoining trees against frost and
isolation
• There is a little danger of the seed bearers being uprooted by wind storms as these are
surrounded by un-felled forests
• Damage by felling to regeneration is avoided during the earlier stages by regulating the fall
of trees towards the un-felled forest. 74
Disadvantages
• In hilly areas, survey and location of existing advance growth before felling is extremely difficult
• Marking for seeding felling in the form of rings round groups of existing advance growth or
artificially created gaps in hilly terrain is difficult
• Towards the later stage, the few isolated seed bearers are exposed to the risk of wind throw
• Location of the nuclei of regeneration for weeding and cleaning is difficult and it involves lot of
time resulting in costly operation
• As the work gets diffused, its supervision and control becomes difficult
• The system requires intensive working and where this is not possible its success can not be
ensured. 75
Application
First tried in Chamba for Devdar and in Parbar for Gobre salla in Himanchal
Pradesh but
it was not successful due to:
• Groups of advance growth and artificially created gaps could not be
mapped in practice because of hilly terrain, therefore could not be
properly tended
• Protection of regeneration against grazing and fire could not be enforced
76
Types of Shelterwood system: 2.3.3 Strip
Regeneration fellings are done in the form of strips successively from one side
of the compartment progressively against the direction of wind.
• This system has been evolved from Uniform system for protective measures
• The width of the stripes varies according to local conditions and may vary from 20-
30m
• Main objective is protection against wind
• The laying out of strips, execution of felling, logging and transport of material,
tending of regeneration and its protection against fire and grazing present
difficulty 77
78
• If the rotation age is 80 years and the regeneration period is 10 years, a
forest area is divided into 8 periodic blocks.
• Each periodic block is further divided into 10 annual sub-blocks in strips.
• Regeneration felling is carried out in one annual sub-block every year.
• An example of annual sub-blocks in strips and timing of regeneration felling
under the shelterwood system applied in a forest with 80 years of rotation
age and 10 years of regeneration period is presented in Table below.
79
WWF Nepal (2020)
An example of annual sub-blocks in strips
80
WWF Nepal (2020)
Types of Shelterwood system:
2.3.4 Irregular
• Regeneration fellings are on the
pattern of Group System but as the
regeneration period is long, the crop
produced is un-even aged or irregular
• This system is a compromise between The Irregular Shelter wood System
Shelter wood group system and

Selection system 81
Application of Shelterwood system in Nepal in general:
• Shorea robusta forests and mixed broadleaf forests in Terai and the
Siwalik
• Chirpine forests of mid-hills
• Forests grown in a land with less than 19-degree slope
• Forests and species with the capacity to produce quality seeds for
regeneration
• Forests without adequate saplings and poles (uniform shelterwood)
• Forests with adequate saplings and poles (irregular shelterwood) 82
WWF Nepal (2020)
2.4 Selection system
• In a selection system, felling and regeneration is distributed over an entire
forest area– creating or maintaining uneven-aged forest.
• The forest area is divided into working blocks based on the felling cycle. The
numbers of working blocks should equal the years of felling cycles.
• Plants of all ages or age classes are distributed in each working block and in the
entire forest area.
• Predicted growth of forest crop and proportion of diameter classes is used to
determine felling cycle.
• Felling is generally carried out in one working block per year on bigger sized
trees with an exploitable diameter. Average annual increment of species and
rotation age is used to determine exploitable diameter.
83
WWF Nepal (2020)
An example felling carried out using a selection system
An example of felling cycle, working block and

felling year under a selection system, applied to a
forest with 80 years of rotation age and 10 years of
felling cycle WWF Nepal (2020) 84
Fellings and regenerations are distributed over the whole area and
the resultant crop is so uneven aged that trees of all ages are found
mixed together over every part of the area.
2.4.1 Single Tree Selection System
2.4.2 The Group Selection System
85
2.4 Selection system: 2.4.1 Single Tree Selection System
Individual trees are selected and felled.
Pattern of Felling
• The selection system follows nature in respect of its pattern of felling like dying of mature
trees and taking place by younger regeneration
• Scattered single mature trees are selected all over the area and felled to enable regeneration
to replace them
• As the process is repeated year after year, un-even aged character of the crop is maintained
• The area worked out under this system is divided into coupes and fellings are confined to one
coupe every year
86
Single Tree
Selection
System
87
Conduct of Felling - Following categories of trees are usually removed:
• Dead, dying, diseased and defective trees
• Trees of undesirable species
• Immature trees which can be removed in judicious thinning
• Mature trees which will leave gaps for regeneration to come in
Mode of Regeneration
• It is expected that natural regeneration will come up in the gaps created by
felling of trees
• If natural regeneration does not follow, artificial regeneration is attempted
Tending - Weeding and cleaning are carried out for 2 to 3 years to enable the
young regeneration to grow.
Character of Crop - Un-even aged with all age classes mixed together on each
unit of area. 88
Advantages
The selection
management system
maintains a diverse,
all-aged forest with
a wide range of
species of different
sizes and ages.
© RVCA’s LandOwner Resource

Centre (1999) 89
Advantages
• This system maintains continuous canopy at the top and some layers of
canopy below it making full use of the site factors
• By maintaining continuous leaf cover, it conserves soil and moisture in full
extent
• The forests produced are resistant to injuries by insect, pest and adverse
climatic factors
• It prevents invasion of grass and weeds
• Natural regeneration comes up without difficulty due to abundance of seed
bearers and protection afforded to seedlings
• Produces more growing stock and increment
• Best system for producing large sized trees
• It produces a forest which is superior biologically as well as in aesthetic and
scenic value 90
Disadvantages
• Considerable skill is required in carrying out marking and felling to ensure
regeneration to come up in the gaps
• As the mature trees to be removed are scattered, cost of logging and
extraction is higher
• Felling, extraction and logging may damage to the young crop
• Seeds may be obtained from genetically inferior trees
• There is continuous regeneration, so it can be damaged by grazing
• Strict fire protection is difficult which may damage young crop
• Success or failure of regeneration is difficult to assess 91
Application
• This system is suitable where slope is steep and terrain is broken to serve the
soil conservation and landslide protection,
• It is favorable where continuous ground cover is necessary such as catchments
areas and erosion prone areas.
• In the areas where the product of particular size and species is in demand.
• Sensitive shade bearer species are more suitable to work under this system.
• It is suitable where objective of management is promotion of bio-diversity as
regeneration of diverse species is possible under this system.
92
2.4 Selection system: 2.4.2 The Group Selection System
• The Group Selection System is defined as a
Selection System in which trees are felled in
small groups and not as scattered single trees of
the typical Selection System.
• These felling may be distributed over the whole

area if it is small, otherwise these are carried The
Group
out only on a part of the whole forest each year Tree
selection
under a felling cycle. Consequently, the System
regeneration is also spread over the whole area.
93
2.4 Selection system: 2.4.2 The Group Selection System
Advantages of group selection system over single tree selection
• Basically the group selection system is easier to administer and treat than single tree
selection.
• The simplest types of group selection systems create definite gaps in the forest canopy.
• These systems fit ecologically with "gap-regenerated" stands, which tend to be

common in some unmanaged stand types.
• If gaps are large enough, the entire spectrum of local vegetation may regenerate within
them.
• This may encourage a diverse habitat for wildlife and promote biodiversity.
94
Yield regulation under selection system
• In a selection system, bigger sized and mature trees from forests–identified based on
exploitable diameter–are harvested.
• Exploitable diameter is calculated based on the rotation age and average annual
increment.
• Every tree with an exploitable diameter present in the working block is felled.
• In addition to bigger sized trees, 4d plants (dead, dying, diseased and deformed) that
hinder the growth of targeted plants are also removed during felling.
95
WWF Nepal (2020)
Selection system is applicable in the following types of forests:
• Uneven-aged forest that have plants of all ages or age classes
• Forests in the hills, mountains or fragile/instable topographies
• Forests grown in lands over a 19-degree slope
• Forests valuable for biodiversity and ecosystem services
96
WWF Nepal (2020)
• Even-aged/Regular Maintain
“reverse J”
• Uneven-aged
shape curve
o Balanced for
sustained
o Unbalance/irregular
yield.
97
2.5 Accessory systems
The term Accessory Systems refers to those high forest
systems, which originate from other even-aged systems
by modification of technique, resulting in an irregular or
two-storeyed high forest.
2.5.1 Two storied high forest system
2.5.2 High forest with reserve system

98
2.5 Accessory systems: 2.5.1 Two storied high forest system
A silvicultural system in which an upper and lower storey of trees

grow on the same site, consisting respectively of a light-demanding
and a shade-tolerant species (which is younger). 99
Wilson (2013)
• Two-storeyed High Forest System is an accessory silvicultural system
which results in the formation of a two-storeyed forest, i.e., a crop of
trees in which the canopy can be differentiated into two strata, in
each of which the dominant species is usually different.
• The crop in each storey is approximately even-aged, and is of seedling
origin.
• The lower storey may be obtained by natural regeneration by seed
brought from outside but usually by under planting.
100
Two-storeyed High Forest System is applied for one of the following objects:
Objectives of under planting

• Protection of soil –When the upper storey is of a strong light demanding
species, some evergreen species are planted under it to cover the soil, planting
of bamboo under teak
• Increasing the proportion of valuable species in the moist deciduous and semi
ever green forest – when the proportion of valuable species in the upper
canopy is low, valuable species are planted under the main crop like planting of
teak in the moist sal forest
• Propagation of species which can not be raised in the open – When valuable
species can not be raised in the open like planting of mulberry under sisau
101
Advantages
• To protect soil with the lower storey when the upper storey crop is incapable of doing
so.
• To increase production by growing two crops on the same area
• To propagate shade bearing or frost tender species which can not be grown without
protection
• To change the species gradually
• To obtain early returns
102
Disadvantages
• Under planting is a difficult operation and unless done carefully, it is likely to fail
• The under storey is likely to be damaged during fellings in the upper storey
• The under storey crop may affect the growth of the upper storey crop
Application
• Sal and pine forests growing together
• Bamboo under pine and deodar forests
• Pine and oak forests

103
Systems applied:
i. In Pakistan, two major species grown in the irrigated plantation at present are
Sissoo and Mulberry : The Sissoo is a light demander while mulberry is shade
bearer. Sissoo produces firewood and also very good furniture wood when
retained for long rotation. The chief use of Mulberry is the manufacture of
sports goods.
ii. In Germany mixed plantation of Scots pine and beech
iii. In UK Oak and Larch
iv. In India Chir pine and Oak 104

2.5 Accessory systems: 2.5.2 High forest with reserve system
• High Forest with Reserves System is an accessory silvicultural system in
which selected trees of the crop being regenerated are retained for part
or whole of the second rotation, in order to produce large- sized timber.
• The recent trends of reserving some trees of the old crop in the clear-
felling system is an example of this system.
• In uniform system some trees are retained at the time of final felling for
light increment.
105
2.6 Coppice systems
Those silvicultural systems in which the new crop originates mainly
from stool coppice and where the rotation of the coppice is short.
Coppice systems can be applied in the following forms:
2.6.1 Simple coppice
2.6.2 Coppice with standards
2.6.3 Coppice with reserves
2.6.4 Other variations of coppice systems
106
2.6 Coppice systems: 2.6.1 Simple coppice
• It is defined as a silvicultural system based on stool coppice, in which the old crop is clear
felled completely with no reservation for shelterwood, or any other purpose.
• The crop produced under this system is even-aged.
Pattern, Season and method
• The best season for coppicing is a little before the growth starts in spring because, at this
time, there is a large reserve of food material in roots, which is utilized by the coppice shoots.
• The stump should neither be too low nor high. Thus, the stumps are usually kept 15 to 25 cm.
• The trees are felled in such a away that the stumps does not split, the bark does not get
detached from the wood and that it slopes slightly in one direction so that rain water may
quickly drain off.
107
• In this system, a forest is
divided into annual working
blocks based on the rotation
period.
• Trees in the annual working
blocks are harvested and
coppice regenerated from the
harvested blocks are managed
to grow future crops.
Coppice management WWF Nepal (2020) 108
• Regeneration is from stool coppice
• Trees cannot coppice indefinitely as they loose their coppice vigour
• Some stools do not coppice and there is a gap which is filled by planting stumps
Tending
• In the 2nd year, cleaning is done to remove the climbers and inferior species and to reduce
the number of shoots to two or three
• If the objective of coppice is production of poles or timber, thinning becomes necessary
• First thinning is done in 5th year and no. of shoots reduced to one which is known as singling
out operation
• Character of the crop produced - Resultant crop is even aged. 109
Advantages
• It is very simple in application and does not require any skill in marking
• The regeneration under this system is more certain than the systems based on natural
regeneration from seed
• Cost of weeding, cleaning and protection is much less as coppice shoots grow faster in
beginning
• Reproduction cost is cheaper
• MAI is higher than that obtained under a high forest system
• Net return on investment is relatively higher due to shorter rotation and lesser amount
invested 110
Disadvantages
• Only small sized timber is produced, therefore applicability and financial return
is limited to areas where there is demand for such timber
• The system tends to exhaust mineral substance in the soil as the growth is
vigorous
• It is not a permanent system as trees cannot keep on coppicing indefinitely
• The coppice crop is liable to damage by frost and wind
• Not desirable from aesthetic point of view
111
Application
• This system is suitable for areas where the factors of locality are low
and incapable of producing lager-sized timber.
• This system is applicable only to areas where there may be demand
for fuel, poles and small sized timber only.
• Suitable for community forest

112
2.6 Coppice systems: 2.6.2 Coppice with standards
An over wood of standards, usually of seedling origin and composed
of trees of various ages, is kept over coppice for periods which may be
multiples of coppice rotation and as a permanent feature of the crop
throughout its life. The standards are kept in this system with the
following objectives: Coppice with standard system
• Supply of large-sized timber;

• Protection against frost;
• Enrichment of coppice; and
• Increase in revenue. 113
Pattern of Felling
All trees are clear felled except standards which are selected with
following considerations:
i. Species
ii. Characteristics and quality of standards
iii. Number of standards
iv. Distribution of standards
114
Pattern of Felling
i. Species
• Need not to be same species as coppice
• These may be one or two species
ii. Characteristics and quality of standards
• Should be of most valuable species of the crop
• Should have a long, clean bole and light foliage
• Capable of putting on increment through several coppice rotations
• Should be wind firm and light demander 115
Pattern of Felling
iii. Number of standards
• Varies with the objectives of management, climatic factors, silvicultural
characteristics of the species
• Large number of standards – to produce large sized timber, frosty area,
coppice crop is shade bearer
• Standards should not occupy more than one third of the canopy
iv. Distribution of standards
• Standards should be uniformly distributed over the whole area
• Selection of prescribed no. of standards in 10 or 20 m squares
• Selected standards are marked with ring, numbered and recorded
• Rest of the trees are clear felled
116
Mode of Regeneration - It is mainly stool coppice but gaps are filled in by
artificial regeneration and by allowing the natural seedlings to grow
Tending
• After the felling, the coupe is cleaned by slash burning
• Cleaning is done to cut climbers and reduce no. of coppice shoots per stool
• Thinning is done year in 5th and 10th if there are large standards and
objective is to produce poles from coppice
• Pruning is also done with the first thinning if necessary
• Crop consists of two storeys- over wood and under wood
• Under wood is even aged and over wood is uneven aged 117
Advantages
• This system affords greater protection to the soil due to presence
of standards as over wood
• Standards grow in isolation getting the benefit of light increment
without exposing the soil which is protected by the coppice.
• The standards serve the purpose of seed bearers and provide
seedling regeneration
• The investment is small in compared to the most of the high forest
system and the coppice gives early return on the capital
• Net return is higher because of production of large size timber
along with coppice
• It is aesthetically superior than simple coppice system 118
Disadvantages
• Its difficult to apply in practice as correct distribution of
standards is required
• Felling, conversion and extraction costs are higher in this
system than in the high forest system
• It is a compromise between simple coppice and high forest
system but coppice is less vigorous and standards yield lesser
tree per hectare
• This system makes relatively higher demand on soil fertility
with exhausting effect on it
119
Conditions of Applicability
• Where there is demand for fire wood, poles and large sized timber
• Where climatic factors inhibit the use of simple coppice system
• This system is not applicable where the requisite number of uniformly distributed
standards of desirable species are not available for retention
Examples of Application
• Sal forests in Pilibhit, India – rotation of 30 years for coppice and 60 years for
standards
• Irrigated plantation in Pakistan – rotation of coppice was 18 years and standards
was 54 years
120
2.6 Coppice systems: 2.6.3 Coppice with reserves
• Silvicultural system in which felling is done only in suitable areas likely to benefit, after
reserving all financially immature growth of principal as well as other valuable miscellaneous
species for protective reasons either singly or optimally spaced groups, trees yielding
products of economic importance and entire crop for protective reasons.
• First introduced in 1934-35 and was recognized as Silvicultural system in 1961 by Tenth
Silvicultural Conference and recommended for dry deciduous forest extensively.
Reservation
by area
121
Pattern of Felling
• Emphasis is more on conservation than felling
• Areas which require protection and areas where felling can be done are
distinguished
• Felling is done according to the requirements of the crop, local people and site. So
it may be from clear felling to no felling
• Reservation of old crop to form part of the new crop is done in the following ways:
i. Reservation by areas
ii. Reservation by species
iii. Reservation by trees
122
Pattern of Felling
Reservation of old crop to form part of the new crop is done in the following ways:
i. Reservation by areas: Entire crop of the area is reserved under following conditions:
• Under-stocked areas
• Eroded areas or areas prone to erosion and strips along streams
• Areas around streams, wells, camping site and places of worship
• High quality areas where crop is in its optimum condition
ii. Reservation by species: Reservation of important species
• Species which yield edible fruits and NTFPs like Jamun, Harro, Barro, Amla
• Species which yield industrial timber like Khair, Simal
• Rare species which necessary for preservation
iii. Reservation by trees: Reservation of individual trees up to a fixed girth class i.e. 0-70
cm for reservation of miscellaneous species for maintaining healthy mixture of species
and completing the stocking and supply of seeds. Rest of the crop is felled.
123
Regeneration is generally obtained by coppice. However, advance growth and
regeneration from seed also contributes to it.
Tending
• Climber cutting in the following year
• Cleaning between 5-8 years for reducing coppice shoots to 2-3/stool
• Thinnings are done at mid rotation age
Resultant crop comprises of irregular groups of even aged coppice with uneven aged
reserved crop scattered irregularly. Over all, the crop is uneven aged.
124
Advantages
• It helps in improving the quality of locality
• It helps in improving the condition and composition of the crop
• It fulfills the need of local population as well as the requirements of industries
• It creates suitable condition for inducement of seeding regeneration of valuable
species
• It offers best financial returns per unit area
Disadvantages
• Its execution requires high degree of skill in the field for marking the trees
• Reservation of a large no of trees affects coppice growth adversely
125
Conditions of Applicability
It is applicable when, It is not applicable when,
• the crop varies greatly in density, • the valuable species are shade bearer and
composition and quality and proportion of frost tender
the valuable species is low • the crop does not contain valuable species
• most of the species are good coppicer and and no hope of improving by coppice
coppicing power of the most valuable species • it is not possible to protect the area against
is vigorous the fire and grazing at least for 5 years after
• valuable species in the crop are light main felling
demanders Examples of Application: It is being applied in dry deciduous forests of
Madhya Pradesh and certain forests of Rajasthan, Bihar, UP. 126
2.6 Coppice systems
Difference between 2.6.3) Coppice with Reserve and 2.6.2) Coppice with Standard
127
2.6 Coppice systems: 2.6.4 Other variations of coppice systems
i) The Shelter wood Coppice System: In this system, even in the first clear felling,
some shelter wood (125 to 150 per hectare) is retained for frost protection. The
shelter wood is removed after the coppice shoots are fully established. This system is
applicable in following special circumstances:
• Where frost is of common occurrence;
• Where the locality is good;
• Where in addition to small-sized timber, there is demand for some large-sized
timber also; and
• Where a rotation longer than ordinary coppice rotation can be adopted. 128
2.6 Coppice systems: 2.6.4 Other variations of coppice systems
ii) Coppice Selection System
• It is a silvicultural system is which felling is carried out on the principles of
selection system but regeneration is obtained by coppice.
• In order to carry out fellings on principles of selection, an exploitable girth or
diameter is fixed according to the size of material required and a felling cycle is
decided.
• The character of the crop produced under this system is uneven aged.
• This system has been applied in the Khair (Acacia catechu Syn. Senegalia
catechu) forest. 129
End of Unit 2.
Major Silvicultural Systems and Their
Advantages and Disadvantages
ADVANCED SILVICULTURE (SFB 557)
BSc 3rd Year 2nd Semester
IoF Hetauda, 2080

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Major Silvicultural Systems

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UNIT 2.

ADVANCED SILVICULTURE (SFB 557)

BSc 3rd Year 2nd Semester

IoF Hetauda, 2080

a. Systems with b. Systems with

• Clear-felling systems are those silvicultural systems in which the

• Clear felling is the most common regeneration felling method

• The clear felling system: The clear felling system is defined as a

• The area to be clear-felled each year in uniformly productive sites is 1/n

• Felling is concentrated in annual/periodic coupes

Yr. 13 Yr. 14 Yr. 15 Yr. 16

Equal (equi-extensive) area

Variations based on methods of regeneration

• First evolved in Myanmar in 1850's for replanting vast teak areas.

• Modified form of shifting cultivation

• Labors are allowed to raise crops along with forest plantation

• After 4-5 years, they move to another patch of land

Major variations based on felling patterns

Arrangement of strips in clear strip system

Character of the crop produced

Clear felling is done in the

form of strips which alternate

with un-felled strips of similar

Diagram showing the pattern of felling in groups reference to numbers

Diagram showing the

Shelter wood group system and

An example felling carried out using a selection system

An example of felling cycle, working block and

© RVCA’s LandOwner Resource

• These felling may be distributed over the whole

• These systems fit ecologically with "gap-regenerated" stands, which tend to be

• Forests in the hills, mountains or fragile/instable topographies

• Forests grown in lands over a 19-degree slope

• Forests valuable for biodiversity and ecosystem services

2.5.1 Two storied high forest system

2.5.2 High forest with reserve system

A silvicultural system in which an upper and lower storey of trees

Objectives of under planting

• To increase production by growing two crops on the same area

• To change the species gradually

• To obtain early returns

• Sal and pine forests growing together

• Bamboo under pine and deodar forests

• Pine and oak forests

ii. In Germany mixed plantation of Scots pine and beech

iii. In UK Oak and Larch

iv. In India Chir pine and Oak 104

and incapable of producing lager-sized timber.

• This system is applicable only to areas where there may be demand

for fuel, poles and small sized timber only.

• Suitable for community forest

• Supply of large-sized timber;

BSc 3rd Year 2nd Semester

IoF Hetauda, 2080

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