INTRODUCTION TO

LITERATURE
CATHERYN A. TADIOS-PACLE, LPT, ME
WHAT IS LITERATURE?
LITERATURE IS…
 Literature, in its broadest sense, is any written
work. Etymologically, the term derives from Latin
litaritura/litteratura “writing formed with letters,”
although some definitions include spoken or sung
texts. More restrictively, it is writing that possesses
literary merit.
LITERATURE IS…
 Literature can be classified according to whether it
is fiction or non-fiction and whether it is poetry or
prose. It can be further distinguished according to
major forms such as the novel, short story or
drama, and works are often categorized according
to historical periods or their adherence to certain
aesthetic features or expectations (genre).
LITERATURE IS…
 Taken to mean only written works, literature was
first produced by some of the world’s earliest
civilizations—those of Ancient Egypt and Sumeria
—as early as the 4th millennium BC; taken to
include spoken or sung texts, it originated even
earlier, and some of the first written works may
have been based on a pre-existing oral tradition.
LITERATURE IS…
 As urban cultures and societies developed, there
was a proliferation in the forms of literature.
Developments in print technology allowed for
literature to be distributed and experienced on an
unprecedented scale, which has culminated in the
twenty-first century in electronic literature.
LITERARY STANDARDS
 The seven literary standards are: artistry,
suggestiveness, intellectual value, spiritual value,
permanence, universality and style.
 The criteria was developed by writer William J.
Long in his textbook English Literature: Its History
and Its Significance for the Life of the English-
speaking World.
UNIVERSALITY
 It appeals to everyone regardless of culture, race,
sex, and time which are considered significant.
Universality describes a piece of writing that
appeals to the hearts and minds of almost any
reader. The appeal is considered universal due to its
ability to cross gender, racial and cultural barriers,
regardless of the time it’s written.
ARTISTRY
 It has an aesthetic appeal to everyone and thus
possesses a sense of beauty. Artistry describes
literature that is aesthetically appealing and
reveals or conveys hidden truth and beauty. This
type of literature appeals to broad audiences and
possesses a sense of beauty in the writing that
could even feel poetic.
INTELLECTUAL VALUE
 It stimulates critical thinking that enriches the
mental processes of abstract and reasoning, making
man realizes the fundamental truths of life and its
nature.
INTELLECTUAL VALUE
SUGGESTIVENESS
 It unravels and conjures man’s emotional
power to define symbolism, nuances, implied
meanings, images and message, giving and evoking
visions above and beyond the plane of ordinary life
and experiences.
SUGGESTIVENESS
 A suggestive piece of literature relies on emotional
power to convey nuances, symbolism, implied
meanings, imagery and messages. The power of
suggestion allows the work to inspire and provoke
thoughts and understanding beyond the actual
words written on the page.
SPIRITUAL VALUE
PERMANENCE
 It endures across time and draws out the time
factor: TIMELINESS, occurring at a particular
time, and TIMELESSNESS, remaining invariably
throughout time.
PERMANENCE
 Permanence is determined by a written work’s
ability to stand the test of time, which makes it
impossible to determine at the moment of writing.
Novels that continue to be read over and over again
across decades, either for enjoyment or for fresh
insights and ideas, meet this criteria. Many novels
enjoy initial popularity but ultimately fade into
obscurity with time, failing the permanence test.
STYLE
 Style refers to the distinct way the author expresses
his or her thoughts. Words can be used in unique,
creative and entertaining ways that make the work
memorable. Style is another element that is subject
to interpretation by readers in terms of its appeal.

It presents peculiar ways on how man sees life as

evidenced by the formation of his ideas, forms,
structures, and expressions which are marked by
their memorable substance.
 Does it move you?
 Does it tickle your imaginations?
 What does it suggest?
 What moral lessons can be drawn out?
 Would it still be read and make a good reference hundreds
of years from now?
 Does it possess multifaceted natures for all sorts of
audience?
 Does the style fascinate you?
 Is the style used unique or forgery?
LITERARY MODELS
CULTURAL MODEL
CULTURAL MODEL
 The cultural model represents the possibility
Literature brings into the picture as regards the
understanding and appreciation of different cultures
and ideologies together with the development of
one’s perception of feelings and artistic forms.
CULTURAL MODEL
 views a literary text as a product and treated as a
source of information about target culture.
 Most traditional approach
 examine the social, political, historical background
to a text, literary movements and genres.
 no specific language work done on a text.
 quite teacher-centered
LANGUAGE MODEL
 most common approach to literature in the EFL
classroom
 Carter and Long (1991) refer to as the ‘language-
based approach’.
 seeks a closer integration between language and
literature.
 Students can improve their language proficiency
 by using literature as a resource in language
learning.
LANGUAGE MODEL
 The language model seeks greater unification
between language and literature.
 Carter (1988) stated that the language-based
approach helps students to focus attention on the
way as to how the language is used.
 Lazar said that in language model, it sees literary
texts as resources for language practice through
series of language activities rather than studying
literature for the purpose of acquiring facts and
information.
LANGUAGE MODEL
 enables learners to access a text in a systematic and
methodical way in order to exemplify specific
linguistic features e.g. literal and figurative
language, direct and indirect speech.
 aims to be more learner-centered.
 attention is focused on the way language is used.
 meaning and increase general awareness of
English.
PERSONAL GROWTH MODEL
 outlined by Carter and Long (1991)
 attempts to bridge the cultural and language model
 Focus on the particular use of language in a text
and placing it in a specific cultural context.
 helps learners develop knowledge of ideas and
language –content and formal schemata–through
different themes and topics.
PERSONAL GROWTH MODEL
 seeks the opportunity for students to relate and
respond to the themes and issues by making a
connection to their personal lives.
 Emphasize the interaction of the reader with the
text.
 text itself has no meaning, it provides direction for
the reader to construct meaning from the reader's
own experience.
CRITICAL
APPROACHES TO
LITERATURE
Unit Focus Questions
How do we study literature?
How do viewpoint and bias affect our
perception of reality?
Critical Approaches to the Study of
Literature
Critical Approaches are different perspectives we
consider when looking at a piece of literature.
They seek to give us answers to these questions, in
addition to aiding us in interpreting literature.
1. What do we read?
2. Why do we read?
3. How do we read?
Critical Approaches to Consider
1. Reader-Response Criticism
2. Formalist Criticism
3. Psychological/Psychoanalytic Criticism
4. Sociological Criticism
A. Feminist/Gender Criticism
B. Marxist Criticism
5. Biographical Criticism
6. New Historicist Criticism
Questions to Ponder for Each
Theory/Approach
 What are the benefits of each
form of criticism?
 What are potential problems

with each form?

 Is there a “right” or a

“wrong” form?
 Can the mode of criticism

alter the entire meaning of a

text?
Basic Idea
 The point of criticism is to argue your point of
view on a work of literature.
 You don’t have to “criticize” a text (but you can)
 You do have to analyze a text and support your
assertions with specific evidence from experts and
the text.
 It’s crucial to go beyond plot development and into
more abstract, higher-level thinking like theme,
tone, purpose, etc.
Basic Idea
 A critical analysis is an in-depth examination of
some aspect of the literary work
 you may examine any element of the text: character
development, conflicts, narrative point of view, etc.
 Literary critical theories inform us of certain ways
to approach big ideas in the novel.
Basic Idea
 There are many different approaches we can take to
critical analysis
 Literary theories provide a framework for our
discussion of a text
 We don’t have to identify the theory we’re using,
though.
 We use it as a starting point for our own ideas and
opinions
1. The Reader-Response Approach
Reader-Response Criticism asserts that a great deal of
meaning in a text lies with how the reader responds to
it.
 Focuses on the act of reading and how it affects our
perception of meaning in a text (how we feel at the
beginning vs. the end)
 Deals more with the process of creating meaning and
experiencing a text as we read. A text is an experience, not
an object.
 The text is a living thing that lives in the reader’s
imagination.

READER + READING SITUATION + TEXT =

MEANING
1. The Reader Response Approach
 analyzes the reader's role in the production of
meaning
 lies at the opposite end of the spectrum from
formalism
 the text itself has no meaning until it is read by a
reader
 The reader creates the meaning.
 can take into account the strategies employed by
the author to elicit a certain response from readers
1. The Reader Response Approach
 denies the possibility that works are universal (i.e.
that they will always mean more or less the same
thing to readers everywhere)
 makes someone's reading a function of personal
identity.
 1. The Reader-Response Approach
2 Important Ideas in Reader-Response
1. An individual reader’s interpretation
usually changes over time.
2. Readers from different generations and
different time periods interpret texts
differently.

Ultimately… How do YOU feel about

what you have read? What do YOU
think it means?
2. The Formalist Approach
Formalist Criticism emphasizes the form of a
literary work to determine its meaning, focusing on
literary elements and how they work to create
meaning.
 Examines a text as independent from its time period,
social setting, and author’s background. A text is an
independent entity.
 Focuses on close readings of texts and analysis of the
effects of literary elements and techniques on the text.
2. The Formalist Approach

Two Major Principles of Formalism

1. A literary text exists independent
of any particular reader and, in a
sense, has a fixed meaning.
2. The greatest literary texts are
“timeless” and “universal.”
2. The Formalist Approach
Terms Used in Formalism/New Criticism:
 intentional fallacy - the false belief that the
meaning or value of a work may be determined by
the author's intention
 affective fallacy - the false belief that the meaning
or value of a work may be determined by its affect
on the reader
 external form - rhyme scheme, meter, stanza form,
etc.
2. The Formalist Approach
Advantages:
can be performed without much research
emphasizes the value of literature apart from its
context
virtually all critical approaches must begin here
Disadvantages:
text is seen in isolation
ignores the context of the work
cannot account for allusions
 3. The Psychological/ Psychoanalytic
Approach
Psychological Criticism views a
text as a revelation of its author’s
mind and personality. It is based
on the work of Sigmund Freud.
 Also focuses on the hidden

motivations of literary characters

 Looks at literary characters as a
reflection of the writer
3. The Psychological/
Psychoanalytic Approach
Freudian Approach to Personality
Three parts to an individual’s psyche:
the id: the instinctual, pleasure seeking part of the

mind
the ego: the part of the mind that controls but does

not repress the id's impulses, releasing them in a

healthy way
the superego: the part of the mind that represses

the id's impulses

3. The Psychological/
Psychoanalytic Approach
Advantages:
 can be a useful tool for understanding character
development and conflict
Disadvantages:
 can turn a work into a psychological case study

 tends to see sex in everything, exaggerating this

aspect of literature
 some works do not lend themselves readily to this
approach.
4. The Sociological Approach
Sociological criticism argues that social
contexts (the social environment) must
be considered when analyzing a text.
 Focuses on the values of a society and

how those views are reflected in a text

 Emphasizes the economic, political,

and cultural issues within literary

texts
 Core Belief: Literature is a reflection

of its society.
 4A. The Marxist Approach
Marxist Criticism
emphasizes economic and
social conditions. It is
based on the political
theory of Karl Marx and
Friedrich Engels.
 Concerned with

understanding the role of

power, politics, and
money in literary texts
4A. The Marxcist Approach
 Karl Marx perceived human history to have
consisted of a series of struggles between classes--
between the oppressed and the oppressing (“the
haves” and “the have-nots”).
 Marx thought that materialism was the ultimate
driving force in history.
4A. The Marxist Approach
Marxist Criticism examines literature to see how
it reflects
1. The way in which dominant groups
(typically, the majority) exploit the
subordinate groups (typically, the
minority)
2. The way in which people become
alienated from one another through
power, money, and politics
4A. The Marxist Approach
 Marxist criticism examines the nature of power
structures within a literary piece.
 It asks questions like: Who has power? Who lacks
power? Who is exploited by whom and why? How
does power remain constant or shift throughout a
work of literature? What makes certain characters
powerful or powerless?
4A. The Marxist Approach
 It also examines commodities, possessions that
give power.
 Typical commodities are things like land and
money but can also be things like social position,
knowledge, or even a person.
 Marxist criticism can also examine what
commodities bring power and why, within a work
of literature.
4B. The Feminist Approach
Feminist Criticism is concerned
with the role, position, and
influence of women in a literary
text.
 Asserts that most “literature”

throughout time has been

written by men, for men.
 Examines the way that the

female consciousness is
depicted by both male and
4B. The Feminist Approach
 Concerned with the roles of female characters
within works
 Power structures between men and women
 The female experience
4B. The Feminist Approach
4 Basic Principles of Feminist Criticism
1. Western civilization is patriarchal.
2. The concepts of gender are mainly cultural
ideas created by patriarchal societies.
3. Patriarchal ideals pervade “literature.”
4. Most “literature” through time has been
gender-biased.
5. The Biographical Approach
Biographical Criticism
argues that we must take
an author’s life and
background into account
when we study a text.
5. The Biographical Approach
Three Benefits:
1. Facts about an author’s experience can help a
reader decide how to interpret a text.
2. A reader can better appreciate a text by knowing
a writer’s struggles or difficulties in creating that
text.
3. A reader can understand a writer’s preoccupation
by studying the way they apply and modify their
own life experiences in their works.
5. The Biographical Approach
Advantages:
 works well for some which are obviously political

or biographical in nature.
 places allusions in their proper classical, political,

or biblical background.
Disadvantages:
 "the intentional fallacy"

 tends to reduce art to the level of biography and

make it relative (to the times) rather than universal.

6. The New Historicist Approach
New Historicist Criticism argues that every literary
work is a product of its time and its world.
 6. The New Historicist Approach
New Historicism:
1. Provides background information necessary to
understand how literary texts were perceived in their
time.
2. Shows how literary texts reflect ideas and attitudes of the
time in which they were written.
 New historicist critics often compare the language in

contemporary documents and literary texts to reveal

cultural assumptions and values in the text.
6. The New Historicist Approach
 New historicist critics view literature as part of
history, and furthermore, as an expression of forces
on history.
 New historicism compares literary analysis to a
dynamic circle:
 The work tells us something about the
surrounding ideology (slavery, rights of women,
etc.)
 Study of the ideology tells us something about
the work.
6. The New Historicist Approach
 New historicism takes two forms:
 Analysis of the work in the context in which it
was created
 Analysis of the work in the context in which it
was critically evaluated.
 New historicists assert that literature “does not
exist outside time and place and cannot be
interpreted without reference to the era in which it
was written” (Kirszner and Mandell).
6. The New Historicist Approach
Why NEW?
Traditional history is, by its nature, a subjective

narrative, usually told from the point of view of the

powerful.
The losers of history do not have the means to write

their stories, nor is there usually an audience

interested in hearing them. Most cultures, once
dominated by another, are forced to forget their past.
6. The New Historicist Approach
 To maintain its sovereignty, the culture of power
simply does not allow the defeated culture to be
remembered.
 Literature, especially, gives subjective voice to

the oppressed. (e.g.: slave narratives)

7. The Archetypal Approach
 Assumes that there is a collection of symbols,
images, characters, and motifs (i.e. archetypes)
that evokes basically the same response in all
people.
 Identifies these patterns and discusses how they
function in the works.
 Asserts that these archetypes are the source of
much of literature's power.
7. The Archetypal Approach
 Based on the theories of psychologist Carl Jung
 He states that mankind possesses a "collective
unconscious" that contains these archetypes and
that is common to all of humanity
7. The Archetypal Approach
Some Archetypes:
archetypal women - the Good Wife/Mother, the
Terrible Mother, the Virgin (often a Damsel in
Distress), and the Fallen Woman.
water - creation, birth-death-resurrection,
purification, redemption, fertility, growth
garden - paradise (Eden), innocence, fertility

desert - spiritual emptiness, death, hopelessness

red - blood, sacrifice, passion, disorder

green - growth, fertility

7. The Archetypal Approach
 black - chaos, death, evil
 serpent - evil, sensuality, mystery, wisdom,
destruction
 seven - perfection
 hero archetype - The hero is involved in a quest
(in which he overcomes obstacles). He experiences
initiation (involving a separation, transformation,
and return), and finally he serves as a scapegoat,
that is, he dies to atone.
7. The Archetypal Approach
Advantages:
 Provides a universal approach to literature and

identifies a reason why certain literature may

survive the test of time.
 It works well with works that are highly symbolic.

Disadvantages:
 Literature may become a vehicle for archetypes

 can easily become a list of symbols without much

analysis.