CE 131: FUNDAMENTALS OF

SURVEYING
1st sem SY 2023 – 2024
DEFINITION OF TERMS
• Level Surface – a curved surface every element at w/c
is normal to the plumb line. It is parallel with the mean
spheroidal surface of the earth
• Level Line – curved line in a level surface, all parts of
w/c are equidistant from the center of the earth.
• Vertical Line – A line in the direction of a plumb line
DEFINITION OF TERMS
• Horizontal Line – straight line tangent to a level line. It
is perpendicular to the vertical or plumb line through a
point of tangency.
• Elevation – vertical distance above or below some
arbitrarily assumed level surface or datum.
• Mean Sea Level – surface of the sea exactly midway
b/n high and low tides; reference surface to which all
elevations are referred.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
• Datum – surface of reference coincident or parallel
with mean sea level to w/c all elevations of a given
region are referred.
• Difference in Elevation – vertical distance b/n an
imaginary level surface containing the high point and a
similar surface containing the low point.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
MEASUREMENT OF DIFFERENCE IN
ELEVATION

CURVATURE & REFRACTION

1st sem SY 2023 – 2024

CURVATURE & REFRACTION
CURVATURE
• From the definitions of level surface and
horizontal line, it is evident that a
horizontal line departs from a level surface
because of the curvature of the earth
CURVATURE
• The vertical distance b/n the horizontal line and the level
line is a measure of the earth’s curvature.
• It is expressed (approximately) by the formula:
C = 0.667M2 = 0.024 (f/1000)2
where: C = curvature effect, ft
M = distance in horizontal line, mi
f = distance in horizontal line, ft
REFRACTION
• Bending of the ray of light
• A ray of light passing from a higher to a
lower elevation along an inclined path will
be bent/refracted toward the surface of the
earth. The path is therefore curved in the
same general direction as the earth’s
surface.
REFRACTION
• The horizontal sight of refraction is
expressed approximately by the formula:
R = 0.09M2 = 0.003 (f/1000)2
where: R = refraction effect, ft
M = horizontal distance, mi
f = horizontal distance, ft
COMBINED EFFECT OF CURVATURE &
REFRACTION
h’1 = 0.577M2
h’2 = 0.021 (f/1000)2
h’1 + h’2 = combined effect, in ft
where: M = distance of the object sighted from the point
of tangency, mi
f = same distance with M, ft
COMBINED EFFECT OF CURVATURE &
REFRACTION
h’3 = 0.0671K2
h’4 = 0.067 (m/1000)2
h’3 + h’4 = combined effect, in m
where: K = distance of the object sighted from the point
of tangency, km
m = same distance with M, meters
MEASUREMENT OF DIFFERENCE IN
ELEVATION

LEVELING

1st sem SY 2023 – 2024

LEVELING
• The process finding the
difference in elevation
b/n two points by
measuring the vertical
distance b/n the level
surfaces through the
points.
LEVELING TERMS
• BENCH MARK (BM) – a definite point on an object
the elevation of w/c is known; reference for leveling
work
• BACKSIGHT (BS) – rod reading taken on a point of
known elevation; often referred to as a plus (+) sight
• FORESIGHT (FS) – rod reading taken on a point the
elevation of which is to be determined; often a minus
(-) sight
LEVELING TERMS
• BACKSIGHT DISTANCE (BSD) – horizontal
distance from the center of the instrument to the rod on
w/c a BS is taken
• FORESIGHT DISTANCE (FSD) - horizontal distance
from the center of the instrument to the rod on w/c a
BS is taken
• TURNING POINT (TP) – intervening point b/n two
BMs upon w/c point FS and BS rod readings are taken
LEVELING TERMS
• HEIGHT OF INSTRUMENT (HI) – elevation of the
line of sight of the telescope when the instrument is
leveled.
METHODS OF MEASURING DIFFERENCE IN
ELEVATION
1. DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING
2. PROFILE LEVELING
3. RECIPROCAL LEVELING
4. BAROMETRIC LEVELING
5. TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING
6. BORROW-PIT LEVELING
PROCEDURE OF LEVELING
1. Select a reference BM and a suitable route to be taken to reach the other point
whose elevation is to be established.
2. After the instrument is set-up and leveled, take a reading on the rod held on
the BM.
3. Compute the elevation of the line of sight (HI) by adding the BS reading to
the BM elevation.
4. Transfer the rod on a solid point w/c is as far from the instrument as the BM
is, and in the general direction in w/c to advance. Take a FS on this rod.
Designate this point as TP and compute its elevation by subtracting the
foresight from the height of instrument.
5. Move the instrument to a new location from w/c a sight can be taken to the TP
just established, and w/c is advantageously located for sighting another TP.
PROCEDURE OF LEVELING
6. From this new set-up, take a BS to the TP just established. The
new HI can now be computed in the same way as when a BS was
taken to the reference BM. With the HI known, the elevation of the
second turning point is now determined by taking FS to it.
7. Repeat the process until FS is taken on the final point whose
elevation is to be determined.
DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING
• Differences in elevation between points (of a certain
distance) by using surveyor’s level and a graduated
measuring rod
DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING
PROFILE LEVELING
• Determining the differences in elevation b/n points at
designated short measured intervals along an
established line to provide data from which a vertical
section of the ground surface along a surveyed line can
be plotted
• E.g. route survey/highway/bridges/culverts
• Taken along center line
PROFILE LEVELING
References:
• Davis, R.E., et. al (1981). Surveying: Theory and
Practice. USA: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
• La Putt, J.P. (2007). Elementary Surveying. Philippines:
National Book Store