P R A D I T YA – W I R ATA M A – N A G A R A B H A K T I

University Course
HISTORY OF WAR
Defense Diplomacy Study Program
Faculty of Defense Strategy

MASTER’S DEGREE PROGRAM

2ND SEMESTER
JANUARY 5, 2024
 TOPICS & SUB-TOPICS FOR MASTER’S PROGRAM

No Topic Sub-Topic
 The relations between History of War and War Theories
History of War and Theories on  Theories on Motivations, Clausewitz, and Sun Tzu
1  The relations between War and National Defense
Warfare
 Researches on the history of war
 The causes of the Peloponnesian War
Peloponnesian War: Land and  A brief history of the Peloponnesian War
2  Land Warfare that occurred during the Peloponnesian War
Naval Warfare
 Naval Warfare that occurred during the Peloponnesian War
 The causes of the Napoleonic War
Napoleonic Wars: Diplomacy in  A brief history of the Napoleonic War
3  Napoleon and the Art of Diplomacy
War
 Alliance in Napoleonic War
 The causes of the Javanese War
Javanese War: Diponegoro  A brief history of the Javanese War
4  A Brief history of Prince Diponegoro
and the Warfare Strategy
 Prince Diponegoro’s Warfare Strategy
P R A D I T YA – W I R ATA M A – N A G A R A B H A K T I 2
 TOPICS & SUB-TOPICS FOR MASTER’S PROGRAM

No Topic Sub-Topic
 The causes of the American Civil War
American Civil War: Politics in  A brief history of the American Civil War
5  Political attempts from the Confederate
War
 Political attempts from the Union
 The causes of the World War I
 A Brief history of World War I
6 World War I: Land Warfare  Land Warfare Strategy and tactics of the Allies
 Land Warfare Strategy and tactics of the Centrals
 A brief history of the Chinese Civil War
Chinese Civil War: Mao  A brief history of Mao Zedong
7 Zedong and the Warfare  Warfare Strategy of the Kuomintang
Strategy  Warfare Strategy of the Communists
 The causes of the World War II (Europe)
World War II (Europe):  A brief history of the World War II (Europe)
8 Amphibious Assault in  Allies’ Amphibious Assault in Normandy
Normandy  Germany’s counterattack attempts
P R A D I T YA – W I R ATA M A – N A G A R A B H A K T I 3
 TOPICS & SUB-TOPICS FOR MASTER’S PROGRAM

No Topic Sub-Topic
 The causes of World War II (Pacific)
World War II (Pacific): Naval  A brief history of the Pacific War
9  Japanese naval power and naval warfare strategy
Warfare
 The U.S. naval power and naval warfare strategy
 The causes of Indonesian National Revolution
Indonesian National  A brief history of Indonesian National Revolution
10  Indonesian guerrilla warfare strategy
Revolution: Guerrilla Warfare
 The People’s role in guerrilla warfare
 The causes of Vietnam War
Vietnam War: Strategic  A brief history of Vietnam War
11  Vietnam’s Warfare Strategy
Bombing
 US’ strategic bombing
 The causes of the Soviet-Afghan War
Soviet-Afghan War: Guerrilla  A brief history of the Soviet-Afghan War
12  Soviet military strength and warfare strategy
Warfare
 Afghan’s Force strength and Guerrilla Warfare
P R A D I T YA – W I R ATA M A – N A G A R A B H A K T I 4
 TOPICS & SUB-TOPICS FOR MASTER’S PROGRAM

No Topic Sub-Topic
 The causes of the Falklands War
 A brief history of the Falklands War
13 Falklands War: Air Warfare  British air power and air warfare strategy
 Argentine air power and air warfare strategy
 The causes of the Gulf War (Iraq-Kuwait)
 A brief history of the Gulf War
Gulf War (Iraq-Kuwait): Land  Iraqi ground forces’ strength and land warfare strategy
14
Warfare  The Coalition’s land forces’ strength and land warfare
strategy

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 ASSIGNMENTS & EVALUATION

1. Writing a Book Review on a History of War book:

• Individual Assignment
• Essay format, 5 pages.
2. Watching Documentary Film:
• Group Assignment
• Title: To be announced.
• Writing an essay, 5 pages.
3. Mid-term exam
4. Final exam

P R A D I T YA – W I R ATA M A – N A G A R A B H A K T I 6
 SCORING WEIGHT

1. Presence : 10%
2. Individual Assignment (Book Review) : 10%
3. Group Assignment (Group Essay from Documentary Film) : 10%
4. Mid-Term Exam : 30%
5. Final Exam : 40%
TOTAL : 100%

P R A D I T YA – W I R ATA M A – N A G A R A B H A K T I 7
P R A D I T YA – W I R ATA M A – N A G A R A B H A K T I

History of War
1st MEETING – HISTORY OF WAR AND
THEORIES ON WARFARE
Defense Diplomacy Study Program
Faculty of Defense Strategy

January 5, 2024
 LEARNING SCOPE

1) Definition of History of War

2) The relations between History of War and War
Theories
3) The relations between the History of War and the
National Defense
4) Researches on the History of War

P R A D I T YA – W I R ATA M A – N A G A R A B H A K T I 9
 REFERENCES

• Ankersmit, F. R. 1987. Refleksi Tentang Sejarah: Pendapat-pendapat Modern tentang

Filsafat Sejarah. Diterjemahkan oleh Dick Hartoko. Jakarta: Gramedia.
• Gottschalk, L. 1985. Mengerti Sejarah. Translated by Nugroho Notosusanto. Jakarta:
Penerbit Universitas Indonesia.
• Kuntowijoyo. 2013. Pengantar Ilmu Sejarah. Yogyakarta: Tiara Wacana.
• Notosusanto, N. 1987. Sejarah dan Hankam. Mabes ABRI, Pusat Sejarah dan Tradisi
ABRI.
• Simatupang, T.B. 1981. Pelopor dalam Perang Pelopor dalam Damai. Jakarta:
Penerbit Sinar Harapan.
• Suryohadiprojo, S. 1981. Suatu Pengantar dalam Ilmu Perang: Masalah Pertahanan
Negara. Jakarta: Intermasa.
• Suryohadiprojo, S. 2008. Pengantar dalam Ilmu Perang. Jakarta: Pustaka Intermasa.

P R A D I T YA – W I R ATA M A – N A G A R A B H A K T I 10
 DEFINITION OF HISTORY OF WAR

P R A D I T YA – W I R ATA M A – N A G A R A B H A K T I 11
 THE MEANING OF HISTORY

• The English word “history” comes from the Greek noun istoria = knowledge.
• Aristotle: istoria = systematic description of a set of natural phenomena, regardless
of the chronological order as a factor in the description; that usage, though rare, still
lives on in English in the term “natural history”.
• General understanding: History = the past of mankind.
• Geschichte (German) from the word geschehen = occur; something that has occurred.
• The word "history" from the word "syajarah" (Arabic) = tree; meaning genealogy (list
of origins or list of descendants).

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 THE MEANING OF HISTORY

1) History as an event = all of mankind’s past experiences.

2) History as a story = a reconstruction made subsequently on all mankind’s

past experiences.

3) History as a science = as a general and systematic knowledge of all

mankind’s past experiences which subsequently will be compiled into a
story.

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 MILITARY HISTORY OR HISTORY OF WAR

• Military history is a discipline of the humanities within the scope of the

general historical record of armed conflicts in the history of humanity, and
their impact on society, culture and the economy, as well as the changes
that have taken place in local and international relations.

• Professional historians usually focus on military affairs that had a major

impact on the peoples involved and the aftermath of the conflict, while
amateur historians and hobbyists are often more interested in the details of
battles, equipment, and uniforms used.

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 MILITARY HISTORY OR HISTORY OF WAR

• Important subjects of the study of military history are the causes of war, its
social and cultural foundations, both sides’ military doctrines, logistics,
leadership, technology, strategy, and tactics used, and how these have
changed over time.
• On the other hand, Just War Theory explores the moral dimension of warfare
and seeks to establish a military ethics doctrine to set further limit on the
destructive realities caused by war.
• As an applied science, military history has been studied in military
academies and schools since military leaders makes the effort to avoid
repeating the mistakes of the past, and improve their current performance.

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 MILITARY HISTORY OR HISTORY OF WAR

• For this reason, it is necessary to instill the ability to understand historical

parallels during battles to the commanders, so that they can take advantage
of lessons learned from the past.
• When educating military history instructors, the Institute for Combat Studies
puts less emphasis on rote memorization of details and focuses on themes
and context in relation to current and future conflicts, using the motto “The
Past is the Background.”
• The science of military history is dynamic, which change along with
development of the society and organizations that use it.

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 MILITARY HISTORY OR HISTORY OF WAR

• The dynamic nature of the science of military history is largely related to

the speed of change of the military unit, and the art and science to manage
it, as well as the technological development rate that occurred during the
period known as the Industrial Revolution, and more recently in the nuclear
and information age.
• A recent important concept is the Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA) which
attempts to explain how warfare has been shaped by developing
technologies, such as gunpowder.
• The RMA highlights a brief, major change followed by a period of stability.

P R A D I T YA – W I R ATA M A – N A G A R A B H A K T I 17
 QUESTION 1

• In your opinion, what are the benefits that you as a student will obtain by
studying and mastering the issues raised in this history of war subject?
• Please explain your opinion!

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 THE RELATIONS BETWEEN THE HISTORY
OF WAR AND WAR THEORIES

P R A D I T YA – W I R ATA M A – N A G A R A B H A K T I 19
 DEFINITION OF WAR

• In a broad sense: war is the violent engagement of different but similar

entities.
• Grotius: war is a condition for those who fight with certain violence.
• Clausewitz: war is an act of violence intended to force our opponents to
compel to our will. War is nothing but a continuation of political relations by
other means.

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 DEFINITION OF WAR

• Definition: war is a legal situation and a form of conflict that involves a

degree of legal equality, hostility, and violence from organized human
groups. In a simpler way, it is legal conditions that allow two or more hostile
groups to conflict with its armed forces.

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 CAUSES OF WAR

• PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY
• Behavioral approach. Human beings possesses the nature of violence. This
aggressiveness is triggered by projections in which a person diverts his
complaints into bias and hatred towards another race, religion, nation, or
ideology. By using this theory, state maintains order in its society while creating a
way to channel this aggressive nature through war (John Bowlby, Personal
Aggressiveness and War).
• Franco Fornari focuses on sacrifice as the essence of war: the incredible
willingness of humans to die for their country, to surrender their bodies to their
people.
• Evolutionary psychology. This study tends to see war as an extension of animal
behavior, such as the nature of territoriality and competition (Konrad Lorenz, On
Aggression)

P R A D I T YA – W I R ATA M A – N A G A R A B H A K T I 22
 CAUSES OF WAR

• BIOLOGICAL THEORY
• War is part of human nature. No victory over nature can inspire people as much
as victory over another human being (R. Steinmetz, Philosophy of War).
• DEMOGRAPHIC THEORY
• Malthus' theory: increasing population and scarce resources as the sources of
violent conflict.
• Youth bulge theory: a large group of male youths (which are graphically
represented as the “youth bulge” in the population pyramid), with a lack of job
opportunities, have the potential for violence.

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 CAUSES OF WAR

• ECONOMIC THEORY
• War: as a form of economic competition in a competitive international system, war
is intended for the seizure of markets for natural resources, and wealth.
• “Is there any man here or any woman, let me say is there any child here, who does
not know that the seed of war in the modern world is industrial and commercial
rivalry?” (US President Woodrow Wilson, September 11, 1919, St. Louis).
• THEORY OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
• Realists: the motivation of the state to go to war is to seek its security.
• Democratic peace theory: democracies do not go to war with each other.

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 CAUSES OF WAR

• POWER TRANSITION THEORY

• Focuses on the differences in growth rates and their effect on the changes in
relative power between countries, resulting in new relations between countries
and the formation of new political and economic entities.
• One by-product of the differential growth is the high conflict potential when
the challenger state and the preeminent or dominant state reach a stage of
relative power parity, and in particular when the challenger is dissatisfied with
the status quo.

P R A D I T YA – W I R ATA M A – N A G A R A B H A K T I 25
 CLAUSEWITZ: WAR IS FOR POLITICAL OBJECTIVE

• War objectives: will vary according to political objectives and actual

circumstances.
• The goal of war: always and solely to defeat and disarm the enemy.
• We must distinguish three things: the armed forces, the state, and the will of the
enemy.

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 THE FUNCTION OF WAR

• War has become a method used to achieve major political changes in the modern
world as well as to maintain world stability.
• For some countries, war is used to separate themselves (US, Greece, Cuba,
Czech, Syria) and sometimes to unite.
• Imperialistic wars were used for the expansion of culture and institutions of
modern civilization (Spain, Portugal, Turkey).

P R A D I T YA – W I R ATA M A – N A G A R A B H A K T I 27
 THE FUNCTION OF WAR

• War has contributed to the historical transition of human interests and ideas
(Protestant and Catholic).
• War has played a role in maintaining the status of established states and an
established international order.
• War has become one of the ways to maintain the balance of power over the
political and legal organizations of the world community.
• War sometimes contributes to the destruction of nations, civilizations, stability,
and the international system.

P R A D I T YA – W I R ATA M A – N A G A R A B H A K T I 28
 THE CAUSES OF WAR

• FROM SCIENTIFIC PERSPECTIVE

• The difficulty of maintaining a stable balance between the political and
military power of countries in the world;
• The difficulty of using international legal sanctions as an effective instrument
for determining changes in state interests, changing human values, and just
settlement of international disputes;
• The difficulty of regulating political power so as to maintain order in world
society; and
• The difficulty of making peace as a more important symbol than certain
symbols that may locally, temporarily, or generally support war.

P R A D I T YA – W I R ATA M A – N A G A R A B H A K T I 29
 THE CAUSES OF WAR

• FROM HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

• During the Franco-Prussian War, they divided the causes of war into
“immediate causes", "special causes", and "general causes".
• Immediate causes: certain events that occurred shortly before the war;
• Specific causes: internal problems of the French government, etc.;
• Common cause: French notion of natural frontiers.
• Historians: trying to explain the causes of war by studying in detail about
events that preceded the war in question, as well as the circumstances and
conditions that can be associated with the war, by placing the motives,
impulses, and intentions of humans, from practical, political, and legal
aspects.

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 THE CAUSES OF WAR

• PRACTICAL CAUSES OF WAR

• Humans and governments find themselves in situations where they believe
they must fight or perish. Thus, they fight out of necessity;
• Humans or governments want something — wealth, power, social solidarity —
and, when the means of war are in their possession and other means have
failed, they use war as a rational tool to get what they want;

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 THE CAUSES OF WAR

• Humans and governments have a habit of struggling for ideologies that require
fighting to give rise to certain stimuli. Therefore, under the right circumstances
they will wage war;
• Humans and governments feel like warring because they like to fight, are bored,
or fall victim to frustration or confusion, and for that reason they fight
spontaneously to get rid of their problems or for relaxation.

P R A D I T YA – W I R ATA M A – N A G A R A B H A K T I 32
 QUESTION 2

• In your opinion, what are the contributions of the History of War to your attempts
in understanding and mastering the theories of war?
• Please explain your opinion!

P R A D I T YA – W I R ATA M A – N A G A R A B H A K T I 33
 THE RELATIONS BETWEEN WAR
AND THE NATIONAL DEFENSE

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 EXPERTS’ VIEW

• GENERAL GEORGE S. PATTON, JR:

• “To be a successful soldier, you must know history.”
• Marshal Foch:
• “The truth is, no study is possible on the battlefield. One does there simply
what one can in order to apply what one knows.”
• The study of the history of war provides comprehension on the interactions of
forces that have shaped the present and provides a way of looking at current
problems with a perspective on how humans dealt with similar problems in the
past.

P R A D I T YA – W I R ATA M A – N A G A R A B H A K T I 35
 EXPERTS’ VIEW

• Knowledge of the history of war cannot produce solutions to all problems, nor
can it guarantee success in a military career. But it can provide a basis for
problem solving and career achievement.
• SIR BASIL LIDDELL HART:
• History gives us the opportunity to take advantage of the hardships
experienced by our predecessors.
• Studying the past to understand the present and obtain clues for the future
also has a long and continuing tradition in the writing of history.

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 EXPERTS’ VIEW

• HERODOTUS:
• Writing the history of war is to keep our memory on what humans have done
in the past.
• THUCYDIDES:
• History is for those who want a definite knowledge of the past, and as an aid
to the interpretation of the future.
• US ARMY INFANTRY SCHOOL:
• A place to analyze professionally based on events and operations that have
occurred, and has a vision as a laboratory of military science.
P R A D I T YA – W I R ATA M A – N A G A R A B H A K T I 37
 THE RELATIONS BETWEEN THE HISTORY OF WAR
AND HUMAN RESOURCES CAPABILITY IMPROVEMENT
1. It is very important for military personnel who are concerned with matters of
national interest and involved in improving human resource capabilities.
2. Assisting to cover deficiencies in individual experience; Soldiers may serve only
two or three years in the combat zone during their professional career.
3. Offering personnel the opportunity to enhance their professional qualifications.
4. Soldiers must study the profession continuously if they hope to meet the
challenges that unlimited liability clauses can pose at any time in combat.
5. Assisting to develop useful theories, ideas, and interpretations of the military
profession practice.
6. Inspiring many people: Due to the tendency to increase the odds and difficulties
of warfare, soldiers must be able to adapt quickly to fight if they know that
others have overcome similar or worse conditions.

P R A D I T YA – W I R ATA M A – N A G A R A B H A K T I 38
 THE RELATIONS BETWEEN THE HISTORY OF WAR
AND HUMAN RESOURCES CAPABILITY IMPROVEMENT
7. Helping soldiers to define and appreciate the meaning of professionalism.
8. Helping a leader to gain valuable insights: changing views of citizens who enter
the military and their reactions to military service; view of regular soldiers
versus conscripts; what subordinates expect from their leader; and human
reactions to adversity.
9. Providing many examples of good and bad leadership.
10. Providing the moral side of leadership, where one can learn something about the
strength of character.
11. Providing a valuable perspective for critical analysis of contemporary problems.
12. Assisting soldiers by revealing traits that others find useful in developing the
independence of mind and by emphasizing that confusion, lack of information,
and friction are normal things in war.

P R A D I T YA – W I R ATA M A – N A G A R A B H A K T I 39
 DOUGLAS MACARTHUR

“Military student does not seek to learn from history the minutia of method and
technique. In every age, these are decisively influenced by the characteristics of
weapons currently available and by the means at hand, for maneuvering,
supplying and controlling combat forces. But research does bring to light those
fundamental principles and their combination and application which in the past
have been productive of success. These principles know no limitation of time.
Consequently, the Army extends its analytical interest to the dust-buried
accounts of wars long past as well as to those still reeking with the scent of
battle. It is the object of the search that dictates the field for its pursuit.”

P R A D I T YA – W I R ATA M A – N A G A R A B H A K T I 40
 RICHARD PRESTON

“War, as it happens in the modern world, is more than just a clash of arms. The
development of the military and its organization, as well as the explanation of
campaign strategy and operational tactics, previously of concern to military
historians, can only be understood in terms of developments in the world in
general, in relation to technological progress, and in relation to changes in
political and economic organization.”

P R A D I T YA – W I R ATA M A – N A G A R A B H A K T I 41
 THE INDONESIA’S NATIONAL DEFENSE DOCTRINE

• Is a form of software that is agreed upon or believed to be true, sourced from a

view of life, developed based on historical experience, and is used to guide
mindsets, attitudes, patterns of action in solving strategic problems.
• Source of input from the experience of success and failure of war and developed
for the purpose of guiding, teaching.
• The National Defense Doctrine was formulated based on the history of the
nation's struggles & past experiences until the birth of the reform movement.

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 INDONESIA’S NATIONAL DEFENSE DOCTRINE

• The Wehrkreise system inspired the birth of the Total Defense System (Sishanta), which
combines & synergizes military & non-military forces.
• Indonesia’s natural resources and diversity is a strong potential as well as a threat.
• The National defense is the responsibility and obligation of every Indonesian citizens,
which is carried out through government functions.
• As a guide and teachings of the national defense implementation, the doctrine is
formulated based on the history and past experience. It must be visionary and able to
adapt the strategic environment development.
• It is a teaching on the national defense fundamental principles which are believed to be
true, extracted from the values of the nation's struggle and past experiences, to be used
as guidelines/teachings in developing national defense concept in accordance with the
requirements of national defense duties within the framework of the national interests.

P R A D I T YA – W I R ATA M A – N A G A R A B H A K T I 43
 T. B. SIMATUPANG

• The stories of chivalry, which have had a great influence in social life and on wars during
long history, are an important element in the effort to give content and soul to soldiership
and a code of honor in the development of our National Armed Forces since 1945.
• For the Armed Forces, the history of the struggle for independence also contains
materials for developing theories on tactical and organizational matters. Therefore, we
must try to record the history of the struggle for independence as completely and
honestly as possible.

P R A D I T YA – W I R ATA M A – N A G A R A B H A K T I 44
 T. B. SIMATUPANG

• The situation that we currently face is very different from the situation in the old
history [History of the kingdoms of the Archipelago]… Even so it is still very
beneficial to deepen our knowledge on the old history, also for our officers,
because history is a strong impetus to give a deeper understanding of the oldest
layers in the nation’s soul and an impetus to work in all fields, so the current era of
independence which began a few years ago can be a new era of success in the
history of our nation.

P R A D I T YA – W I R ATA M A – N A G A R A B H A K T I 45
 NUGROHO NOTOSUSANTO

• History does not predict with certainty that the Indonesian people will win [the war
against the Dutch], but only "teaches", that a nation whose military strength is less than
the opponent's can win as long as they are good at using both [physical war and
diplomacy] weapons.

P R A D I T YA – W I R ATA M A – N A G A R A B H A K T I 46
 QUESTION 3

• Please mention some examples of warfare values/principles/methods contained

in the national defense doctrine/Indonesian Armed Forces (or joint military)
doctrine/military service (i.e. army, navy, and air force) doctrine, which actually
comes from the history of the Indonesian people in fighting against foreign
countries/colonizers!
• Please explain that!

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 RESEARCHES ON THE HISTORY OF WAR

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 THEMES ON HISTORY RESEARCHES

• It can be anything related to humans as social beings and has meaning for the
next generation.
• It can be in the form of social, economic, political, cultural, environmental,
urban, maritime, and agrarian issues, including military and war.

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 SOURCES OF HISTORY

• Historical sources that can be used in historical research: Documentary sources,

Oral sources, Object sources, Audio-visual sources, and Digital sources.
• Oral tradition: testimony given based on stories passed down from one generation
to the next.
• Oral history: testimony given by the perpetrator or witness of the events
narrated.
• Document Sources: village archives, city government archives, memorandum of
handover, personal letters, personal notes, newspapers, magazines, tabloids, and
central government archives.

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 SOURCES OF HISTORY

• Oral sources: obtained by conducting oral history interviews, with oral history
sources. The resource person does not always have to be a perpetrator, but can
also be a witness of a historical event.
• Source of objects: buildings, infrastructure, and various types of equipment.
• Audio-visual sources: Documentary films.
• Digital sources are stored in various platforms, such as data storage media in the
form of Hard Disks, Flash Drives, External Hard Disks, and webpages on the
internet.

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 CRITICS OF SOURCES

• Historical data and information obtained from the heuristic process cannot be
used directly, they must go through a critical process before producing facts.
Facts are a series of information that has gone through critical processes.
• Source criticism: external criticism and internal criticism. External criticism is the
verification or examination of the source authenticity based on source storage
material testing. External criticism is especially important to be applied on
written document sources and object sources.

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 INTERPRETATION

• Interpretation: the facts obtained will be interpreted and placed chronologically

and thematically. Facts interpretation process requires sufficient knowledge
about the research theme being worked on.
• The type of required knowledge to properly interpret facts is knowledge
regarding the spatial and temporal units of the theme under study.

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 INTERPRETATION

• Historical studies that use methodology will be better able to explain (provide
explanation) than those that limit themselves to revealing how something
happened or describing events as narratives (story).
• Historical researchers need to be equipped with analytical, conceptual, and
theoretical tools; which can be obtained by exploring primary and secondary
sources. By doing so, one can observe the research object with a structured
perspective, in order to reveal various aspects of the research object.

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 HISTORICAL WRITING

• Historiography or historical writing is the process of writing stories based on

interpreted historical facts.
• It requires language skills and the ability to assemble various facts that exist to
become a coherent historical story. The principle of coherence is very important
in historical writing.
• Coherence: a statement which is declared acceptable if it does not conflict with
other statements which truths have been accepted.
• It takes the ability of imagination to make historical narratives beautiful, not as a
substitute for facts, but instead to strengthen facts.

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 QUESTION 4

• In your opinion, what are the issues and problems in the history of war that need
to be raised as research objects in the Republic of Indonesia Defense University?
• Pease explain your argument!

P R A D I T YA – W I R ATA M A – N A G A R A B H A K T I 56
 THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION

P R A D I T YA – W I R ATA M A – N A G A R A B H A K T I