CH 01

CHAPTER 1
Introduction to the Study of Cell

and Molecular Biology
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

1.0 | Introduction
We Are Cells
Cells make up our skin, our organs, and our muscles.
When we grow from a tiny embryo into a large adult, we do so by adding more
and more cells.
Many medicines work by changing how cells behave, and in recent years cells
themselves are being used as medicines to cure sick people.
Because all living things are made of one or more cells, the origin of life
corresponds to the origin of cells.

1.1 | The Discovery of Cells
Cells are the topic of intense study.
The study of cells requires creative instruments and techniques.
Cell biology is reductionist, based on the premise that studying the parts of the
whole can explain the character of the whole.

Microscopy
The discovery of cells followed from the invention of

the microscope by Robert Hooke, and its refinement by
Anton Leewenhoek.
Hooke termed the pores inside cork cells because they

reminded him of the cells inhabited by monks living in
a monastery.
Leeuwenhoek was the first to examine a drop of pond

water under the microscope and observe the teeming
microscopic “animalcules” that darted back and forth.
Leewenhoek: single lens microscope
Hooke: double lens microscope

Cell Theory
The cell theory was articulated in the mid-1800s by Matthias Schleiden,

Theodor Schwann and Rudolf Virchow.
1) All organisms are composed or one or more cells.

2) The cell is the structural unit of life.
3) Cells arise only by division from a pre-existing cell.

1.2 | Basic Properties of Cells
Cell Theory
Life is the most basic property of

cells.
Cells can grow and reproduce in

culture for extended periods.
HeLa cells are cultured tumor cells

isolated from a cancer patient
(Henrietta Lacks) by George and
Martha Gey in 1951.
Cultured cells are an essential tool

for cell biologists.
HeLa: first human cells for extended culturing

Cells are Highly Complex and Organized
Cellular processes are highly

regulated.
Cells from different species share

similar structure, composition and
metabolic features that have been
conserved throughout evolution.
Levels of cellular and molecular

organization

Cells Possess a Genetic Program and the Means to Use It
Organisms are built according to information encoded in a

collection of genes.
This information is packaged into a set of chromosomes that

occupies the space of a cell nucleus.
Genes store information and constitute the blueprints for

constructing cellular structures, the directions for running cellular
activities, and the program for making more of themselves.
The molecular structure of genes allows for changes in genetic

information (mutations) that lead to variation among individuals,
which forms the basis of biological evolution.

Cells Are Capable of Producing More of Themselves
Cells reproduce by division, a

process in which the contents of a
“mother” cell are distributed into
two “daughter” cells.
Prior to division, the genetic

material is faithfully duplicated,
and each daughter cell receives a
complete and equal share of
genetic information.
Mammalian oocyte after unequal cell division to produce polar body
(arrow)

Cells Acquire and Utilize Energy
Photosynthesis provides fuel for all living organisms.
Animal cells derive energy from the products of

photosynthesis, mainly in the form of glucose.
Cells can convert glucose into ATP—a substance

with readily available energy.
Spirogyra: alga with ribbon-like

chloroplast for photosynthesis

Cells Carry Out a Variety of Chemical Reactions
Cells function like miniaturized chemical plants.
A bacterial cell is capable of hundreds of different chemical

transformations.
Virtually all chemical changes that take place in cells require

enzymes to increase the rate at which a chemical reaction
occurs.
The sum total of the chemical reactions in a cell represents

that cell’s metabolism.

Cells Engage in Mechanical Activities
Cells are very active, they can: transport materials,

assemble and disassemble structures, and sometimes
move itself from one site to another.
Activities are based on dynamic, mechanical changes

within cells, many of which are initiated by changes in
the shape of “motor” proteins.
Motor proteins are just one of many types of molecular

“machines” used for mechanical activities.

Cells Are Able to Respond to Stimuli
A single-celled protest can move away from an object in its

path or toward nutrients.
Cells in plants or animals are covered with receptors that

interact with substances in the environment.
Hormones, growth factors, extracellular materials, and

substances on the surfaces of other cells can interact with
these receptors.
Cells may respond to stimuli by altering their metabolism,

moving from one place to another, or even committing suicide.

Cells Are Capable of Self-Regulation
Cells are robust and are protected

from dangerous fluctuations in
composition and behavior.
Feedback circuits serve to return the

cell to the appropriate state.
Maintaining a complex, ordered state

requires constant regulation.
Hans Driesch found that he could

separate the first two or four cells of
a sea urchin embryo and each of the
isolated cells would proceed to
Self-regulated development in the sea urchin during normal (L)
develop into a normal embryo. and cell separation experiments (R)

Cells Are Capable of Self-Regulation
Information for product design

resides in the nucleic acids, and
the construction workers are
primarily proteins.
Each step of a process must occur

spontaneously so that the next
step is automatically triggered.
Important to understand the

structure and role of each
component in an activity, how
these components interact, and
how these interactions are
regulated. Cellular activities as a sequential series
of events or ‘chain reaction.’

Cells Evolve
Whereas the origin of cells is shrouded in near-total mystery,

the evolution of cells can be studied by examining organisms
that are alive today.
Cells share many features, including a common genetic code,

a plasma membrane, and ribosomes.
According to a tenet of modern biology, all living organisms

evolved from a single, common ancestral cell that lived more
than three billion years ago.
This ancient cell is often referred to as the last universal

common ancestor (or LUCA).

1.3 | Characteristics that Distinguish Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic
Cells
Two basic classes of cells, prokaryotic

and eukaryotic, are distinguished by
their size and the types of organelles
they contain.
Many basic differences as well as

many similarities between the two
types.
Because of their common ancestry,

both types of cells share an identical
genetic language, a common set of
metabolic pathways, and many The structure of cells: Bacteria
common structural features.

Cells
Both types of cells are bounded

by plasma membranes of similar
construction that serve as a
selectively permeable barrier.
Both types of cells may be

surrounded by a rigid cell wall
that protects the cell.
Eukaryotic cells are much more

complex, both structurally and
functionally, than prokaryotic
cells. The structure of
cells: Plant cell

Cells
Both types of cells are bounded

by plasma membranes of similar
construction that serve as a
selectively permeable barrier.
Both types of cells may be

surrounded by a rigid cell wall
that protects the cell.
Eukaryotic cells are much more

complex, both structurally and
functionally, than prokaryotic
cells.
The structure of
cells: Animal cell

Cells
Life “quickly” arose following the

formation of Earth and cooling of
its surface
Prokaryotes are all bacteria, which

arose ~3.7 billion years ago.
Eukaryotes include protists,

animals, plants and fungi.
Complex multicellular animals

appear rather suddenly in the fossil
record approximately 600 million
years ago.
Bio-geological clock: Proposed appearance time
for major groups of organisms

Cells
Complexity: Prokaryotes are relatively simple; eukaryotes are more complex in

structure and function.
Cytoplasm: Eukaryotes have membrane-bound organelles and complex cytoskeletal
proteins. Both have ribosomes but they differ in size.
Cellular reproduction: Eukaryotes divide by mitosis; prokaryotes divide by simple
fission.
Locomotion: Eukaryotes use both cytoplasmic movement, and cilia and flagella;
prokaryotes have flagella, but they differ in both form and mechanism.
Genetic material:
Packaging: Prokaryotes have a nucleoid region whereas eukaryotes have a
membrane-bound nucleus.
Amount: Eukaryotes have much more genetic material than prokaryotes.
Form: Eukaryotes have many chromosomes made of both DNA and protein whereas
prokaryotes have a single, circular DNA.

Cells
Table 1.1 A Comparison of Prokaryotic and eukaryotic Cells

Features held in common by the two types of cells:
o Plasma membrane of similar construction
o Genetic information encoded in DNA using identical genetic code
o Similar mechanisms for transcription and translation of genetic information,
including similar ribosomes
o Shared metabolic pathways (e.g., glycolysis and TCA cycle)
o Similar apparatus for conservation of chemical energy as ATP (located in the
plasma membrane of prokaryotes and the mitochondrial membrane of
eukaryotes)
o Similar mechanism of photosynthesis (between cyanobacteria and green plants)
o Similar mechanism for synthesizing and inserting membrane proteins
o Proteasomes (protein digesting structures) of similar construction (between
archaebacteria and eukaryotes)
o Cytoskeletal filaments built of proteins similar to actin and tubulin
Features of eukaryotic cells not found in prokaryotes:

Cells
Table 1.1 A Comparison of Prokaryotic and eukaryotic Cells

Features of eukaryotic cells not found in prokaryotes:
o Division of cells into nucleus and cytoplasm, separated by a nuclear envelope

containing complex pore structures
o Complex chromosomes composed of DNA and associated proteins that are
capable of compacting into mitotic structures
o Complex membranous cytoplasmic organelles (includes endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes, endosomes, peroxisomes, and
glyoxisomes)
o Specialized cytoplasmic organelles for aerobic respiration (mitochondria) and
photosynthesis (chloroplasts)
o Complex cytoskeletal system (including actinfilaments, intermediate
filaments, and microtubules) and associated motor proteins
o Complex flagella and cilia
o Ability to ingest particulate material by enclosure within plasma membrane
vesicles (phagocytosis)
o Cellulose-containing cell walls (in plants)
o Cell division using a microtubule-containing mitotic spindle that separates
chromosomes
o Presence of two copies of genes per cell (diploidy), one from each parent
o Presence of three different RNA synthesizing enzymes (RNA polymerases)
o Sexual reproduction requiring meiosis and fertilization

Cells
Eukaryotic cells possess a nucleus: a

region bounded by a membranous
structure called the nuclear envelope.
The cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell is

filled with a great diversity of structures.
The cytoplasmic membranes form a

system of interconnecting channels and
vesicles that function in the transport of
substances from one part of a cell to
another.
Eukaryotic cell structure: Epithelial cell

from the male rat reproductive tract
Cells
The cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell is

extremely crowded, leaving very
little space for the soluble phase of
the cytoplasm, the cytosol.
The cytoplasm near the cell

membrane is a region where
membrane-bound organelles tend to
be absent.
The cytoskeleton and other large

macromolecular complexes, mostly
ribosomes, are found throughout the Colorized electron micrograph of a
cytoplasm. frozen single-celled eukaryote.
Cytoskeleton: Red
Ribosomes: Green
Cell membrane: Blue
Cells
Eukaryotic cells divide by a complex

process of mitosis.
Duplicated chromosomes condense into

compact structures that are segregated by
an elaborate microtubule-containing
apparatus.
This apparatus, the mitotic spindle, allows

each daughter cell to receive an equivalent
array of genetic material. Cell division in eukaryotes
DNA (blue) and microtubules (green)
of two daughter cells.

Cells
Prokaryotes are mostly nonsexual organisms.
They contain one copy of their single

chromosome and have no processes comparable
to meiosis, gamete formation, or true fertilization.
Some are capable of conjugation, in which a piece

of DNA is passed to another cell.
Prokaryotes are more adept at picking up and

incorporating foreign DNA from their
environment, which has had considerable impact
on microbial evolution
Bacterial conjugation
Sharing of DNA through the
F pilus

Cells
Low magnification
Locomotion in prokaryotes is relatively

simple.
High
Can be accomplished by a thin protein
filament, called a flagellum, which
protrudes from the cell and rotates.
The rotations exert pressure against

the surrounding fluid, propelling the SEM
cell through the medium.
Salmonella bacterium
Multiple flagella for locomotion

Cells
Certain eukaryotic cells, including

many protists and sperm cells, also
possess flagella.
Eukaryotic versions are much more

complex than the simple protein
filaments of bacteria, and they
generate movement by a different SEM
mechanism.
TEM: cross section
Human sperm cells

Single flagella

1.4 | Types of Prokaryotic Cells
Domain Archaea and Domain Bacteria
The best known Archaea are species that live in extremely inhospitable environments, often referred to as
“extremophiles.”
Methanogens: Convert CO2 and H2 gases into methane
Halophiles: Live in extremely salty environments, like the Dead Sea or deep sea brine pools with salinity
equivalent to 5M MgCl2.
Acidophiles: Acid-loving prokaryotes that thrive at a pH as low as 0.

Thermophiles: Live at very high temperatures.
Hyperthermophiles: Live in the hydrothermal vents of the ocean floor up to a temperature of 121 oC, the
temperature used to sterilize surgical instruments in an autoclave.

Domain Archaea and Domain Bacteria
Domain Bacteria includes the smallest known cells,

the mycoplasma, which lack a cell wall.
Bacteria are present in every conceivable habitat on
Earth, even found in rock layers kilometers beneath
the Earth’s surface.
Cyanobacteria contain arrays of cytoplasmic
membranes that serve as sites of photosynthesis.
Cyanobacteria gave rise to green plants and an
oxygen-rich atmosphere, and some are capable of Cyanobacteria: electron micrograph
nitrogen fixation.
Cyanobacteria in polar bear coats

Prokaryotic Diversity
Roughly 6000 species of prokaryotes have been identified, less than one-tenth of 1 percent of the millions of prokaryotic species
thought to exist.
DNA sequencing is so rapid and cost-efficient that virtually all of the genes present in the microbes of a given habitat can be
sequenced, generating a collective genome, or metagenome.
These same molecular strategies are being used to explore the collection of microbes living on us, known as the human
microbiome.
Functions of proteins encoded by these microbial genomes include the synthesis of vitamins, the breakdown of complex plant
sugars, and the prevention of growth of pathogenic organisms.

Prokaryotic Diversity
Table 1.2 Number and Biomass of Prokaryotes in the World
No. of prokaryotic Pg of C in
environment cells, × 1028 prokaryotes*
Aquatic habitats 12 2.2
Oceanic subsurface 355 303
Soil 26 26
Terrestrial subsurface 25---250 22---215
Total 415---640 353---546
*1 petagram (Pg) = 1015g.

Source: W. B. Whitman et al., Proc. Nat’l. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 95:6581, 1998.

1.5 | Types of Eukaryotic Cells
The most complex eukaryotic cells may

not found inside of plants or animals, but
rather among the single-celled protists.
The machinery needed for sensing the

environment, trapping food, expelling
excess fluid, and evading predators is
found in a single cell.
Vorticella have a contractile ribbon in

the stalk and a large macronucleus that
contains multiple copies of its genes.
Vorticella, a complex ciliated protist

Cell Differentiation
Multicellular eukaryotes have

different cell types for different
functions.
Cell differentiation occurs during

embryonic development in
multicellular organisms.
The numbers and arrangements of

organelles relate to the function and
activity of the cell.
Despite differentiation, cells have

many features in common most being
composed of the same organelles.
Pathways of cell differentiation

Model Organisms
Escherichia coli (bacterium) Saccharomyces (yeast) Arabidopsis (mustard plant)
Caenorhabditis elegans Drosophila (fruit fly) Mus musculus (mouse)

(nematode)
1.6 | The Human Perspective
The Prospect of Cell Replacement Therapy
Human diseases can result from a loss of cells like Type 1 diabetes,
Parkinson’s disease and heart failure.
Goal of Cell Replacement Therapy of isolating cells from a patient,

converting them into the cells that are needed, and then infusing them back
into the patient to restore the body’s lost function.
Bone marrow transplantation uses extracted cells from a donor to treat

lymphomas and leukemias in recipients, and regenerates the blood tissue
because it contains hematopoietic stem cells.
A single HSC is capable of reconstituting the entire hematopoietic (blood‐

forming) system of an irradiated mouse.
Saving the blood from the umbilical cord of a newborn baby provides a
source of HSCs if they are needed later in life.

Adult Stem Cells
Stem cells can self‐renew and are multipotent,

capable of differentiating into two or more Adult muscle stem
cell (yellow)
mature cell types. present in
Most adult human organs contain stem cells differentiated
muscle fiber with
that are capable of cell replacement.
stained blue nuclei.
The adult brain has stem cells that can
generate new neurons and glial cells.
Adult skeletal muscle has “satellite cells,” that
divide and differentiate for repair of injured
muscle tissue. Adult muscle stem
cells
Adult human heart has stem cells that can differentiating into
differentiate into cells that form both the adipose cells in
heart’s muscle tissue and blood vessels. culture.

Adult Stem Cells
Stem cell clinical trials of heart attack patients

showed a majority had significant replacement Adult muscle stem
of the damaged heart muscle by healthy cell (yellow)
present in
tissue from infused cells.
differentiated
muscle fiber with
Adult stem cells are ideal because they stained blue nuclei.
represent an autologous treatment.
The majority of adult stem cell therapies

under development use the mesenchymal
stem cell (MSC), isolated from fat tissue.
Adult muscle stem
MSC clinical trials are underway for cells
treating heart disease, diabetes, and differentiating into
adipose cells in
immune diseases such as Lupus and
culture.
Crohn’s disease.

Embryonic Stem Cells
Embryonic stem (ES) cells isolated from

blastocysts are pluripotent, capable of
differentiating into every cell type.
Human ES cells have been isolated from

embryos provided by in vitro fertilization
clinics.
Important to learn how ES cells can

differentiate in culture into each of the many
cell types for cell replacement therapy.
Transplants of differentiated, ES‐derived

cells can improve the condition of animals
with diseased organs. Isolation of ES cells from blastocysts

Embryonic Stem Cells
ES cell therapy is under intense study as a

treatment for retinal degeneration.
The primary risk with the therapeutic use

of ES cells is teratoma formation.
ES cells derived from cell lines isolated

from human embryos unrelated to the
patients could cause immunologic
rejection.
Possible to “customize” ES cells so

that they possess the same genetic
makeup of as the patient by using
somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT).
A procedure for obtaining differentiated cells for
use in cell replacement therapy
Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
Induced pluripotent cells (iPS cells) can

be generated from somatic cells and are
pluripotent like ES cells.
They can correct certain diseases like

sickle cell anemia in mice.
iPS cells use may extend beyond cell

replacement therapy to understand how
diseases progress and how to treat them.
Diseased iPS cells can be differentiated

into the specialized cell types that are
affected by the particular disease.
Steps taken to generate iPS for use in
correcting the inherited disease sickle
cell anemia in mice

Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
The generation of iPS cells does not

require the use of an embryo, which
avoids ethical issues.
iPS cells may lack the “high quality”

characteristic of ES cells.
A residual memory of their origin

makes it is easier to direct iPS cells
toward differentiation back into the
cells from which they were derived
than into other types of cells.
Like ES cells, undifferentiated iPS Steps taken to generate iPS for use in
cells also give rise to teratomas, correcting the inherited disease sickle
cell anemia in mice

Direct Cell Reprogramming
In 2008, one type of differentiated cell was converted directly into

another type of differentiated cell, or “transdifferentiation.”
Acinar cells of the pancreas, which produce enzymes for food digestion,
were transformed into pancreatic beta cells, which synthesize insulin.
The reprogramming process occurred without the cells passing through

an intermediate stem cell state and it occurred within the pancreas of a
live mouse.
Laboratories have developed in vitro techniques to directly convert

fibroblasts into another type in culture without passing through a
pluripotent intermediate.

1.7 | The Sizes of Cells and Their Components
Cells are commonly measured in units of

micrometers (1 μm = 10–6 meter) and
nanometers (1 nm = 10–9 meter).
The cell size is limited:
1) By the volume of cytoplasm that can be
supported by the genes in the nucleus.
2) By the volume of cytoplasm that can be
supported by exchange of nutrients.
3) By the distance over which substances can
efficiently travel through the cytoplasm via
diffusion.
However, some eukaryotic cells can be
extremely large, as the green alga
Acetabularia is more than 10 cm long.
Relative sizes of cells and
cell components
1.7 | The Sizes of Cells and Their Components
Synthetic Biology is a field oriented to create a

living cell in the laboratory.
A more modest goal is to develop novel life forms,

beginning with existing organisms.
Possible applications to medicine, industry, or the

environment.
Prospect is good after replacing the genome of one

bacterium with that of a closely related species.
Synthetic biology toolbox:

Nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids

1.8 | Viruses and Viroids
Viruses are pathogens and intracellular

obligate parasites.
Viral structure:
Genetic material and can be single-stranded DNA
or RNA.
Protein capsid surrounds the genetic material. RNA-based Tobacco mosaic

A lipid envelope may surround the capsid in some virus (TMV)
viruses.
A virion is a virus particle outside the host

cell.
Viroids are pathogens, each consisting of a
small, naked RNA molecule, which can
cause disease by interfering with gene
expression in host cells.
Electron microscopy: TVM
Adenovirus Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) T-even bacteriophage
Viral capsids are generally made up of subunits from only one or a few proteins to conserve genome size.
Many viruses have a capsid whose subunits are organized into a polyhedron, that is, a structure having
planar faces.
Viral specificity for a certain host is determined by the virus’ surface proteins, since infection requires
those proteins to bind surface proteins of the host cell.

Viral infection types:

Lytic infection: the virus redirects the host into making more
virus particles, the host cell lyses and releases the viruses.
Integration: the virus integrates its DNA (called a provirus)
Bacteriophage
into the host cell’s chromosomes. Outcomes include:
infection of
The Infected host may behave normally until external bacterium (late
stimulus activates the provirus, leading to lysis.
stage)
The host may give rise to viral progeny by budding without
lysis (HIV virus.
The host may lose control of it’s cell cycle and become
malignant.
HIV infection
of human
lymphocyte
(late stage)

1.9 | Experimental Pathways
The Origin of Eukaryotic Cells
What is the origin of the eukaryotic cell?
Generally agreed that prokaryotic cells (1) arose before eukaryotic cells and
(2) gave rise to eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic cells were present in rocks approximately 2.7 billion years old,
roughly one billion years before eukaryotes.
Two types of cells are related to one another if they share complex traits
(e.g., similar genetic codes, enzymes, metabolic pathways, and plasma
membranes) that could not have evolved independently.
Eukaryotic cells were thought to have evolved from prokaryotic cells by a

process of gradual evolution in which the organelles of the eukaryotic cell
became progressively more complex.

Lynn Margulis believed that certain organelles of a eukaryotic cell (e.g.

mitochondria, chloroplast) had evolved from smaller prokaryotic cells that
had taken up residence in the cytoplasm of a larger host cell.
This hypothesis is referred to as the endosymbiont theory because it

describes how a single “composite” cell of greater complexity could evolve
from two or more separate, simpler cells living in a symbiotic relationship
with one another.

A model depicting
stages in the
evolution of
eukaryotes
Our earliest prokaryotic ancestors were probably anaerobic heterotrophic cells: deriving
energy from food matter without oxygen, unable to synthesize organic compounds
from inorganic precursors (CO2, H2O).
Acquired the ability to form internal membrane compartments, allowing formation of

a nucleus by containing the DNA within an internal membrane.
This first organism is considered eukaryote ‐like and is known as the first eukaryotic
common ancester (FECA).

Although internal membranes were

thought to be a eukaryotic trait, some
bacteria can form extensive complex
internal membrane systems.
The bacterium Gemmata obscuriglobus,

forms a variety of complex internal
membranes, yet these membranes do
not form closed compartments like
eukaryotic organelles.
The key step in producing the FECA

was the development of these
Bacteria with complex internal
membranes into closed internal
membrane systems.
compartments, particularly a nuclear
compartment.

Cells developed additional internal organelles (endoplasmic reticulum,

Golgi complex, lysosomes), a complex cytoskeleton including cilia, intron
splicing, and both mitotic and meiotic cell division.
These characteristics are proposed to have arisen by a gradual process of

evolution, rather than in a single step as an endosymbiont.
All eukaryotes alive today descended from the cell that acquired these
traits, and it is therefore known as the last eukaryotic common ancestor
(LECA).
Current research on evolutionary cell biology is focused on reconstructing

the molecular, structural and functional features of the FECA and LECA by
comparing features of existing eukaryotic and prokaryotic lineages.

New ideas about the origin of eukaryotic cells were based on molecular evolution and proposed
by Carl Woese.
Based on nucleotide sequences of single genes, Woese proposed three major cell lineages:
Bacteria: include Gram positive, Gram negative, and cyanobacteria.
Archaea: include halophiles, thermophiles, methanogens and acidophiles.
Eucarya: include plants, animals, fungi, and protists.

A phylogenetic showing
based on rRNA sequence
comparisons showing the
three domains of life
Phylogenetic trees were based primarily on the analysis of the gene

encoding the 16S–18S rRNA.
Sequencing of prokaryotic genomes allowed for the rapid comparison of

hundreds of different genes, which blurred the lines between the three
domains.

Phylogenetic relation
between existing eukaryotic
lineages
Based on whole genomes, many organisms appear to be genetic mosaics.

Lateral gene transfer (LGT) results in organisms with both parental DNA and
DNA from other organisms in the environment.
Bacteria and Eucarya show evidence of LGT in their genomes.

CH 01

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

CH 01

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CHAPTER 1

Introduction to the Study of Cell

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Cells make up our skin, our organs, and our muscles.

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Cells are the topic of intense study.

The study of cells requires creative instruments and techniques.

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

The discovery of cells followed from the invention of

Hooke termed the pores inside cork cells because they

Leeuwenhoek was the first to examine a drop of pond

Leewenhoek: single lens microscope

Hooke: double lens microscope

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

The cell theory was articulated in the mid-1800s by Matthias Schleiden,

1) All organisms are composed or one or more cells.

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Life is the most basic property of

Cells can grow and reproduce in

HeLa cells are cultured tumor cells

Cultured cells are an essential tool

HeLa: first human cells for extended culturing

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Cellular processes are highly

Cells from different species share

Levels of cellular and molecular

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Organisms are built according to information encoded in a

This information is packaged into a set of chromosomes that

Genes store information and constitute the blueprints for

The molecular structure of genes allows for changes in genetic

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Cells reproduce by division, a

Prior to division, the genetic

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Photosynthesis provides fuel for all living organisms.

Animal cells derive energy from the products of

Cells can convert glucose into ATP—a substance

Spirogyra: alga with ribbon-like

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Cells function like miniaturized chemical plants.

A bacterial cell is capable of hundreds of different chemical

Virtually all chemical changes that take place in cells require

The sum total of the chemical reactions in a cell represents

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Cells are very active, they can: transport materials,

Activities are based on dynamic, mechanical changes

Motor proteins are just one of many types of molecular

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

A single-celled protest can move away from an object in its

Cells in plants or animals are covered with receptors that

Hormones, growth factors, extracellular materials, and

Cells may respond to stimuli by altering their metabolism,

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Cells are robust and are protected

Feedback circuits serve to return the

Maintaining a complex, ordered state

Hans Driesch found that he could

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Information for product design

Each step of a process must occur

Important to understand the