Electrical Machines

Ms. Kinjal G. Shah, Assistant Professor

Electrical Engineering Department
 CHAPTER-2

STEPPER MOTORS
Introduction
• An electromechanical, digitally pulse operated motor
which operated and controlled in step by step rotation,
is called stepper motor.
• These motors are also called stepping motors or step
motors.
• The name stepper is used because this motor rotates
through a fixed angular step in response to each input
current pulse received by its controller.
• Because of explosive growth of the computer industry
stepper motors are widely used.
• Due to fact that it can be controlled directly by
computers , microprocessors and programmable
• Industrial motors are used to convert electric energy
into mechanical energy but they cannot be used for
precision positioning of an object or precision control of
speed without using closed loop feedback.
• The unique feature of stepper motor is that its output
shaft rotates in a series of discrete angular intervals of
steps, one step being taken each time a command pulse
is received.
• When a definite number of pulses are supplied, the
shaft turns through a definite known angle so open loop
position control can be done.
• It can develop torque from 1μN-m to 40 μN-m in a
motor of 15cm diameter suitable for machine tool
Step Angle
• The angle through which the motor shaft rotates for
each command pulse is called the step angle β.
• Smaller the step angle, greater the number of steps
per revolution and higher the resolution or accuracy
of positioning obtained.
• The step angles can be as small as 0.72º or as large
as 90º. But the most common step sizes are 1.8º,
2.5º, 7.5º and 15º.
• The value of step angle can be expressed either in
terms of the rotor and stator poles (teeth) Nr and Ns
respectively or in terms of the number of stator phases
(m) and the number of rotor teeth.
• β = (( Ns-Nr)/Ns*Nr) * 360º

For example, if Ns = 8 and Nr = 6,

β = (8 – 6) × 360 / 8 × 6 = 15º
• Resolution is given by the number of steps needed to
complete one revolution of the rotor shaft.
• Higher the resolution, greater the accuracy of positioning
of objects by the motor .
• ∴ Resolution = No. of steps / revolution = 360º / β
Construction

Stepper motor has basic component as

• Armature core and winding
• Permanent magnet/soft magnetic iron rotor
• Auxiliary parts( i.e. cage, bearing, shaft etc.)
• Controlling switch and voltage source
Stepper Motor Working principle
• Figure 1 shows a drawing representing the section of
the motor is shown, where the rotor is a variable-
reluctance iron core.
• The basic working principle of the stepper motor is the
following: By energizing one or more of the stator phases, a
magnetic field is generated by the current flowing in the coil
and the rotor aligns with this field.
• By supplying different phases in sequence, the rotor can be
rotated by a specific amount to reach the desired final position.
Figure 2 shows a representation of the working principle.
• At the beginning, coil A is energized and the rotor is aligned
with the magnetic field it produces.
• When coil B is energized, the rotor rotates clockwise by 60° to
align with the new magnetic field. The same happens when coil
C is energized.
• In the pictures, the colours of the stator teeth indicate the
direction of the magnetic field generated by the stator winding.
Variable reluctance motor
• It has wound stator poles but the rotor poles are made
of a ferromagnetic material as shown in Fig.1
• It can be of the single stack type or multi-stack type
which gives smaller step angles.
• Direction of motor rotation is independent of the
polarity of the stator current.
• It is called variable reluctance motor because the
reluctance of the magnetic circuit formed by the rotor
and stator teeth varies with the angular position of the
rotor.
Variable reluctance motor
Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor

• It also has wound stator poles but its rotor poles are
permanently magnetized.
• It has a cylindrical rotor as shown in Fig. Its direction
of rotation depends on the polarity of the stator
current.
Hybrid Stepper Motor

• It is the combining the qualities of Variable Reluctance

Motor and Permanent Magnet motor.
• The Hybrid motor have some of the desirable features
of each .
• Normally, they exhibits the step angle of 0.9 to 5
degree.
• Hybrid stepper motors have permanent magnets present in
the rotor teeth. The pair of teeth termed as cups circulate
the rotor. These are magnetized to create a pair of poles as
North and South poles.
• Also, there are hybrid control kind of stepper motors which
deliver augmented performance and response.
• In addition to the open-loop system, it also provides closed-
loop system advantages.
• Through this kind of motor, the motor’s position can be
continually observed, and then the driver can easily switch in
between closed-loop and open lop based on the condition.
• In general scenarios, the functionality of the motor is
observed and the application of control is done similar to a
normal stepper motor.
• When an error arises between the position of motor and
command because of heavy load, then the system
automatically turns up to a closed-loop like that of a
servo motor.
• This updates to the exact speed level and position thus the
required position is maintained.
Features

A few of the features of the hybrid stepper motor are:

• Simplified control through pulse signals
• Accurate positioning control
• Using small size, high torque values can be generated
• The motor itself has a ceased position
• When there is a power failure, the self-organizing
torque of the motor gets failed and the motor will not
be at a stopped position in vertical functions or when
there is the application of some external force.
Hybrid Stepper Motor Working
• Hybrid motors also have stator poles and these poles are called teeth.
The stator includes 8 poles where each pole has a coil and few teeth
say ‘S’.
• In general, a stator has 40 poles and every cap has 50 teeth.
So, here the count of stator and rotor teeth are 40 and 50
and, in this case, step angle is shown as:
Step Angle = [(50-40)*360]/50*40 = 1.80
• Both the stator and rotor teeth are aligned with each other.
Both the teeth present at two ends of the cap are dislocated
by each other by the way of the centre of the pole pitch.
• As because left and right end caps are axially magnetized,
they gain polarities like north and south poles.
• The coils that are present on 1, 3, 5, and 7 poles have a
series connection to create an ‘A’ phase. whereas the coils
that are present on 2, 4, 6, and 8 poles have a series
connection to create a ‘B’ phase.
• In phase ‘A’, when it is excited through the external current,
then 1 and 5 poles converts into south poles and 3 and 7 as
north poles.
• Now, when phase ‘A’ has no energy and phase ‘B’ is
operated, then the rotor will revolve by a 1.80 step angle.
This makes phase ‘A’ as negative energized.
• In addition, the revolution of the rotor needs phase ‘B’ to be
negatively excited.
• So, to create the anticlockwise movement of the motor, the
below order of phase excitations are needed: +A, +B, -A, -B,
+B, +A. Whereas to create a clockwise movement of the
motor, the below order of phase excitations are needed +A, -
B, +B, +A. This is the hybrid stepper motor working
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qc8zcst2blU

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eyqwLiowZiU – working of stepper motor

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SlN2Hmsvxu4 – advantage and disadvantages of

stepper motor
go to joincrs.com and use the code 2983 202
or Scan
Gate Questions
1. A stepper motor has a step angle of 2.50. Determine number of
steps required for the shaft to make 25 revolutions.
1. 3600
2. 2500
3. 144
4. cannot be determined

2. A variable reluctance stepper motor has 8 main poles which

have 5 teeth each. If rotor has 60 teeth, calculate the stepping
angle.
5. 0.9 degree
6. 3 degree
7. 0.5 degree
8. 1.8 degree
Stepper Motor Modes

• There are three excitation modes that are

commonly used with the stepper motor.
• These stepper motor modes are the
1. full‐step
2. half‐step
3. Micro- step.
Full Step Operation

• In full‐step operation, the stepper motor steps through

the normal step angle, e.g. 200 step/revolution motors
take 1.8 steps, while in half‐step operation 0.9 steps
are taken.
• There are two kinds of full‐step modes.
• Single phase full‐step excitation is where the stepper
motor is operated with only one phase energized at a
time. This mode should only be used in applications
where torque and speed performance are not
important, wherein the motor is operated at a fixed
speed and load conditions are well defined.
• stepper motors are used in full‐step mode as
replacements in existing motion systems, and not used
in new developments.
• Problems with resonance can prohibit operation at some
speeds. This type of mode requires the least amount of
power from the drive power supply of any of the
excitation modes.
• Dual phase full‐step excitation is where the stepper
motor is operated with two phases energized at a time.
• This mode provides good torque and speed performance
with a minimum of resonance problems.
Half Step
• Stepper motor half‐step excitation is alternate single and
dual phase operation resulting in steps one half the normal
step size.
• Therefore, this mode provides twice the resolution. While
the motor torque output varies on alternate steps, this is
more than offset by the need to step through only half the
angle.
• This mode offers almost complete freedom from resonance
problems.
• The stepper motor can be operated over a wide range of
speeds and used to drive almost any load commonly
encountered.
Microstep
• In the stepper motor micro step mode, a stepper motor’s
natural step angle can be divided into much smaller angles.
• For example, a standard 1.8 degree motor has 200
steps/revolution. If the motor is micro stepped with a
‘divide‐by‐10’, then each micro step moves the motor 0.18
degrees, which is 2,000 steps/revolution.
• The micro steps are produced by proportioning the current
in the two windings according to sine and cosine functions.
This mode is only used where smoother motion or more
resolution is required.
• Typically, micro step modes range from divide‐by‐10 to
divide‐by‐256 (51,200 steps/rev for a 1.8 degree motor).
CHARACTERISTICS OF STEPPER MOTOR

Stepper motor characteristics are :

• Static characteristics
• Dynamic characteristics
Static Characteristics
(1) Torque Angle curve and
(2) Torque current curve

(i)Torque-Angle curve
• Torque angle curve of a step motor is
shown in figure. it is seen that that
Torque increases almost sinusoidally,
with angle Θ from equilibrium.
Holding Torque (TH)
• It is the maximum load torque which the energized stepper
motor can withstand without slipping from equilibrium
position.
• If the holding torque is exceeded, the motor suddenly slips
from the present equilibrium position and goes to the static
equilibrium position.
DETENT TORQUE (TD):
• It is the maximum load torque which the un-energized
stepper motor can withstand slipping.
• Detent torque is due to magnetism, and is therefore
available only in permanent magnet and hybrid stepper
motor. It is about 5-10 % of holding torque.
TORQUE CURRENT CURVE

• A typical torque curve for a stepper motor is shown in fig.

• It is seen the curve is initially linear but later on its slope
progressively decreases as the magnetic circuit of the motor
saturates.
Torque constant (Kt)
• Torque constant of the stepper is defined as the initial slope
of the torque-current (T-I) curve of the stepper motor.
• It is also known as torque sensitivity. Its units N-mA, kgcm/A
or OZ-in/A.
Dynamic characteristics
• A stepper motor is said to be operated in synchronism when
there exist strictly one to one correspondence between
number of pulses applied and the number of steps through
which the motor has actually moved. There are two modes
of operation.
• Start-Stop mode Also called as pull in curve or single
stepping mode.
Slewing mode
• In start –stop mode the stepper motor always operate in
synchronism and the motor can be started and stopped
without using synchronism.
• In slewing mode the motor will be in synchronism, but it
cannot be started or stopped without losing synchronism.
• To operate the motor in slewing mode first the motor is to
be started in start stop mode and then to slewing mode.
• Similarly to stop the motor operating in slewing mode, first
the motor is to be brought to the start stop mode and then
stop.
Start Stop mode
• Start stop mode of operation of stepper motor is shown in
figure. In this second pulse is given to the stepper motor
only after the rotor attained a steady or rest position due to
first pulse.
• The region of start-stop mode of operation depends on the
torque developed and the stepping rate or stepping
frequency of stepper motor.
TORQUE-SPEED CHARACTERISTICS
• Torque developed by the stepper motor and stepping rate
characteristics for both modes of operation are shown in fig.
• The curve ABC represents the "pull in“
characteristics and the curve ADE
represents the "pull-out" characteristics.
• The area OABCO represents the region
for start stop mode of operation.
• The area ABCEDA refers to the region
for slewing mode of operation.
Pull in torque
• It is the maximum torque developed by the stepper motor for a given
stepping rate in the start-stop mode (start, synchronised, stop or
reverse) of operation without losing synchronism.
Pull out torque
• It is the maximum torque developed by the stepper motor for a given
stepping rate in the slewing mode without losing synchronism.
Pull in range
• It is the maximum stepping rate at which the stepper motor can
operate in start-stop mode developing a specific torque (without
losing synchronism).
Pull out range
• It is the maximum stepping rate at which the stepper motor can
operate in slewing mode developing a specified torque without losing
synchronism.
https://forms.gle/3M93qbnfjXnZJjvX8
Gate Questions
(1)In a Stepper Motor Detent torque means
(a)Min. of static torque with phase winding unexcited
(b)Max. of static torque with phase winding unexcited
(c)Min. of static torque with phase winding excited
(d)Max. of static torque with phase winding excited

(2) A hybrid stepper motor has eight poles which have been castellated
to have six teeth each. If the rotor has 60 teeth , calculate stepping
angle.
(e) 1.8
(f) 3
(g) 1.5
(h) 3.6
(3) Which of the following types of material used for construction of
variable reluctance motor?
(a)Non magnetic
(b)Ferro magnetic
(c)Para magnetic
(d)Dia magnetic

(4) Which of the following is a disadvantage of a hybrid stepper motor

as compared to a variable reluctance motor?
(e) Greater torque per unit volume
(f) High inertia
(g) Less tendency to resonance
(h) Small step length
Stepper motor driver
• A stepper motor driver (or stepper motor drive) is a circuit
used to drive or run a stepper motor.
• A stepper motor driver usually consists of a controller, a
driver, and the stepper motor’s connections.
• A lot of driver circuits are available on the market today.
• These have been made to be easier and easier to interface to
a stepper motor.
• You can almost instantly run the motor as soon as you
connect the driver circuits to it.
• These circuits come in current and voltage ratings, so it’s
important that you select the right driver circuit according to
Essential Components of Stepper Motor Drive

1.Controller (essentially a microcontroller or a

microprocessor)
2.A driver IC to handle the motor current
3.A power supply unit
Stepper motor controller
The selection of a controller is the first step to building a driver.
It must have a minimum of 4 output pins for the stepper.
Additionally, it must contain timers, ADC, serial port, etc.
depending on the application in which the driver will be used.
Stepper Motor Driver
• Nowadays, people are moving away from discrete driver components
like transistors to more compact integrated IC’s.
• These driver IC’s are available at reasonable costs and are easier to
implement in assembling, which improves the circuit’s overall design
time.
• The drivers must be selected to suit the motor ratings in terms of
current and voltages.
• ULN2003 series of drivers are most popular in non-H Bridge-based
applications, apt for a stepper motor drive.
• Each Darlington pair inside the ULN can handle up to 500mA and the
maximum voltage can be as high as 50VDC.
Power Supply for Stepper Motor Drive

• A stepper motor may run at voltages varying from 5 V

to 12 V and the current draw will be in the range of
100 mA to 400 mA.
• The supplier will give the motor specifications.
Accordingly, we must design the supply.
• The power must be regulated so that fluctuations in
speed and torque can be avoided.
• Since the 7812 voltage regulator can handle only up to
1A of current, the outboard transistor is used here. It
can handle 5 A of current. A proper heat sink must be
provided depending on the total current draw.
Power supply Unit
Miscellaneous Components
• Switches, Potentiometers
• Heat sink
• Connecting wires
Comprehensive Stepper Motor Drive
• The stepper motor drive is a dumb piece of electronics unless you
program the microcontroller to give signals correctly to the stepper
motor via the driver.
• A stepper motor can operate in many modes like full step, wave drive,
or half-stepping (Please refer to the article on Stepper Motor for the
sequence of steps).
• Hence, we must make the driver interactive enough to take command
from the user and do the required kind of stepping. Also, we must
control the speed of rotation. A start/stop command must start or stop
the motor rotation.
• To accomplish the above functions, we need to use additional pins on
the micro-controller. Two pins are required to select the kind of
stepping and to start or stop the motor. One pin is required to connect
a pot, which will act as a speed controller. The ADC inside the micro-
controller will be used to control the speed of rotation.
Program Algorithm
1. Initialize the port pins in input/output modes.
2. Initialize the ADC module.
3. Create separate functions for half-stepping, full stepping, and wave
drive and delay.
4. Check two port pins for operating mode (00-stop, 01-wave drive,10-
full step, 11-half stepping).
5. Go to the appropriate function.
6. Read the Potentiometer value via the ADC and accordingly set a delay
value.
7. Complete one cycle of sequence.
8. Go to step 4.
Driver Board

• If you plan to make your own board using CAD software like
EAGLE, ensure that you provide sufficient thickness for the
motor currents to flow without overheating the board.
• Also, as motors are inductive components, care must be
taken not to disturb the other signal paths through
interferences. Proper ERC and DRC checks must be
followed.
Points To Be Noted
• Building a Stepper motor driver is more about selecting the
proper power supply and driver, and the selection of the
micro-controller is secondary.
• Many micro-controllers can do the simple job of rotating the
motor. Still, the design considerations regarding the voltages
and currents you must focus on while designing the driver.
• Also, a single driver board must handle voltages and
currents over a wide range and not only for a single motor.
This will enable you to use the same board in many different
projects rather than making a new one every time.
Sizing of stepper motor: stepper motor physical size

To choose a properly sized motor we need to figure out

the
• torque requirement,
• the motor technology that best suits the application
• which motor in that technology family of motors
produces enough torque to meet those needs.
Motor Size: NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers
Association) standard
• One of the first things to consider is the work that the motor has to
do. As you might expect, larger motors are capable of delivering more
power. Stepper motors come in sizes ranging from smaller than a
peanut to big NEMA 57 monsters.
• NEMA 17 is a common size used in 3D printers and smaller CNC mills.
Smaller motors find applications in many robotic and animatronic
applications. The larger NEMA frames are common in CNC machines
and industrial applications.
NEMA numbers defined the std. faceplate dimensions for mounting the
motor. They do not defined the other characteristics of the motors. Two
different NEMA17 motor may have different electrical and mechanical
characteristics and are not interchangeable.
Step Count
• It is the positioning resolution require.
• The number of steps per revolution ranges from 4 to 400.
Commonly available step counts are 24, 48 and 200.
• Resolution is often expressed as degrees per step. A 1.8°
motor is the same as a 200 step/revolution motor.
Gearing
• another way to achieve high positioning resolution is
with gearing.
• A 32:1 gear-train applied to the output of an 8-
steps/revolution motor will result in a 512 step motor.
Applications
• 3D printing equipment
• Textile machines
• Printing presses
• Gaming machines
• Medical imaging machinery
• Small robotics
• CNC milling machines
• Welding equipment
• Intelligent lighting
• Camera lenses
• Plotters
• CD Drive / Floppy Drive
Advantages
• Low cost for control achieved
• High torque at start up and low speeds
• Ruggedness
• Simplicity of construction
• Can operate in an open loop control system
• Low maintenance (high reliability)
• Will work in any environment
• Precise positioning and repeatability of movement
Dis- Advantages
• Resonance effect often exhibited at low speeds and
decreasing torque with increasing speed.
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