Theoretical Approaches in

Comparative Sociology

Department of Social Sciences

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Outline
What Is Theory in the Social Sciences?

Non-sociological Approaches to Explaining Social Behavior

Structural-Consensus Approach

Structural-Conflict Approach

Action Theory

Examples

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What Is Theory?
We all use generalizations informed by the social reality. Only
sociology makes them through hard evidence and systematic
logic.

Many generalizations are theories. Theories are abstract

conceptual roadmaps for the interpretation of reality.

“A basic image that guides thinking and research” (Macionis 2006: 28).

They mainly involve statements about relationships between

rather abstract concepts or elements.
e.g. Weber’s theory on the Protestant ethic and spirit of capitalism

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Theories may be scientific or apocryphal (based on anecdotal
evidence)

Theories provide a compass to explore the social world

Highly relevant in social science production:

(a) affect research question
(b) possible explanations
(c) methodological approaches

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Dominant theoretical approaches in sociology:

a) The structural-consensus or functionalist approach

b) The conflict-structural approach

c) The action theory or symbolic interactionist approach

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Non-sociological Approaches of Social Behavior

Humans have always sought for explanations of their social world

We all utilize some form of map for social behavior

Generalizations and attributions of causality simplify our
world. For instance, an efficient way of simplifying our world
are informational cues

There are several pre- and non-sociological models of social

action

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Dominant non-sociological models in contemporary societies (Jones
2003):
Naturalistic reasoning
Behavior attributed to inherent disposition of all humans
‘Naturalized’ way to act
Distinct biological characteristics
…but behavior varies by context
e.g. Standard family arrangements
e.g. biological theories of crime, such as eugenics

Individualistic reasoning
Unique psychological qualities
e.g. Personal school attainment
e.g. Causes of unemployment
…but behavior not randomly distributed,
rather socially patterned

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Religious reasoning
Behavior attributed to supernatural forces
Agency translated to deities or spirits
e.g. Standard family arrangements
e.g. Absolute monarchy
e.g. Phenomena we fail to understand

Non-sociological (scientific) reasoning remains very widespread,

and they enjoy a strong intuitive appeal.

Commonly used without sound empirical basis

However, if backed by sufficient evidence, nonsociological

approaches may have explanatory power.

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Core Questions in Major Sociological Approaches

How should we conceptualize social structure?

How is order and stability achieved?

How is major social change achieved?

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Structural-consensus or Functionalist Approach

One of the two classical approaches in sociology

Founded by Gabriel Tarde & Emile Durkheim and pursued by
many theorists
Developed mainly by European scholars

Main principles:
Social order displays intense regularities
Regularities achieved by ‘social structures’
Rules and norms constitute the core outcomes of ‘social
structures’
Vision of society: mutually dependent set of social orders that
complement each other with actors fulfilling roles

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Rules are formal or informal statements about appropriate
behavior. They include sanctions and regulate behavior
e.g. Regular holidays or conventional schedules -> Predictability

How rules cohere?

Rules are bundled into culture
Culture –> Deep-seated beliefs that shape all our actions and
thoughts
e.g. Being respectful to others

Types of rules:
(a) Roles: Rules linked to particular socio-structural positions
e.g. Actors: feelers; bankers: extroverts & org planners; lawyers/
economists: logical & analytical; docs: compassionate & rational
(b) Values: Generalized rules. Approved ways of living/acting.
Long-term orientations
e.g. Tolerance /// equality of opportunity /// respect for human life

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Rules operate at multiple levels of reality:
e.g. value of kindness differs between family, country and the world

How are rules adopted? Socialization

Inculcation & internalization of rules learnt through learning
and countless repeated experiences
e.g. eating habits; interactions with strangers; learn basic laws…

Rules don’t act! Rules produce social reality by affecting

individuals

Consequences of culture acquisition and socialization:

(a) Behavioral consistency:
Similar socialization -> Similar rules -> similar mental
structures -> uniformity in practices & consensus
e.g. Meaning of ‘work’

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(b) Institutional preservation:
Values/roles transmit norms linked to each institution
Values/roles are ‘functional’: they meet collective needs
e.g. Education -> skills; family -> caring dispositions; military -> security

(c) Functional differentiation:

Roles performed by actors in those social positions

How is change produced?

Through changes in the basic structure of society -> e.g.
population size, social complexity, economic development,
technical innovations
Emergence of new roles, new values and new separation of
social domains

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Emile Durkheim (18601917) as an instance
of structural-consensus thinking:

Social structure made of norms, values and

interdependencies -> ‘Social facts’

Pre-modern societies: Limited division of labor. Religiosity

reminds individuals of their collective obligations. Repressive law.

Modern societies: Extensive individual and institutional division of

labor. Thinning of collective consciousness. Integration through
mutual interdependence and restitutive law.

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Conflict Approach
Social rules aren’t the only possible social constraints on human
action.

Socioeconomic inequalities also produce constraints.

All societies display large inequalities. Reiterative interactions

produce inequalities.

Advantaged and disadvantaged groups clearly distinguishable

e.g. rich/poor, dominant/dominated ethnicity, lifestyles…

-> Goods and opportunities unevenly distributed

-> Groups are sometimes aware of such inequalities and react
to it
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Main principles:
Also focuses on macrolevel structures: properties of society

Large social groups have different resources

Resources determine the group’s ‘life chances’-> interests

Conflict of interests

Actors seek to maximize their wellbeing

Dominant actors impose social order that stabilizes their privilege

Vision of society: sum of competing groups with unequal capacities

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Types of resources:
Income inequalities first to come to mind, but not only one
Inequality is profoundly multidimensional

Inequalities occur as a group holds disproportionate amount of

highly valued assets
Assets: financial, political, educational, social, cultural

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Inequalities of resources/assets affect personal troubles, social
interactions & life chances

Types of relations of inequality:

(a) According to the level of explicitness
Overt: elections, collective agreement negotiations
Covert: undiscussed conflicts (e.g. local pollution, slaves that accepted
their condition, race/ethnicity in Europe)

(b) According to the appropriation of valuable goods/services

Domination: exclusion from key resources
e.g. unequal distribution of talents
Exploitation: dominant group appropriates effort of dominated
group
e.g. competition between entrepreneurs & underpaid employees 20
How is order achieved by dominant groups?
Use of sheer violence or coercion
e.g. policy and protection of private property // overrepresentation in prison

Formalization of rules favorable to privileged actors

e.g. legal limits on labor strikes // patriarchal prerogatives

Manipulation of values & beliefs by dominant groups and

‘interested socialization’
e.g. female support for the male breadwinner model, low SES individuals’
believe in equality of opportunity
Deliberate propaganda – e.g. political parties
Undeliberate discourses – e.g. mass media, marketing

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Production of social change:

Adaptation by dominant groups to structural changes

e.g. Industrial bourgeoisie -> financial bourgeoisie

Organized mobilization by subordinated groups combining new

interpretations and forms of action
e.g. Social revolutions, welfare protection, feminist movement

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A Few Examples
Ineq. in educ. Gender occupational Music industry
attainment segregation
Transmits values:
Imp given to educ Fathers/mothers fulfill entertainment, joie de
success different roles vivre
Structural- Levels of Gender-dominated
consensus encouragement occupations match Meets needs: vent stress;
Familiarity with the preexisting gender build social capital; find
logic of educ system roles romantic partners;
boost local economy
Large industry with
Access to private Gender-dominated powerful corporations
education occupations limit
Favorable home access Owners compete
Structural- conditions Lobby govs
conflict Health/diet Men attain more power
Access to info Use of cultural means Music consumption
Opportunity cost to preserve segregation structured by class and
different benefits

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Max Weber (1864-1919)

Most social relations are conflictive; are

infused of power inequalities.
Three main forms of conflict and inequality:

(a) Social class: Relationship to productive goods and

market situation (e.g. employers/workers)

(b) Status: Prestige and social honor (e.g. military, religious leaders)

(c) Party: Organization seeking to attain org power

Mechanisms of domination: law & social closure

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Action Theory
Focus on the microlevel aspects of social life.

Social interactions provide the ultimate bases of social reality.

Axiomatic elements:

Humans are free agents – have certain range of maneuver

Humans engage in intentional action – get their goals met

Persuasion of others is critical in social life

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Vision of society: sum of human interactions.

In those interactions, behavioral alternatives are infinite

How are behaviors chosen in interactions?

The person’s interpretation of their context
Her goals
Her use of symbols

Interpretations essential due to fack of murky reality

(e.g. Brexit)

Reality doesn’t matter due to its ontology, but through its

interpretation
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Symbols are consciously or unconsciously mobilized
verbal and nonverbal

Twoway process – all participants mobilize their symbols

Our action determined by:

What we know + what we want + what we think others
are & know + how persuasive we think our acting will be +
how we think the others are reacting in situ

Person’s B will act in similar way

-> Very complex dynamic with undetermined/variable outcome

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Individual-level effects: creation of self-image
We perceive/interpret what other perceive/interpret in us
and this process construct our personality and self-image
Socialization -> internalization of other’s perceptions of
oneself
(e.g. schoolgirl, teacher and selfdefinition)

Yet, not passive reaction -> we fight back to convey an

interpretation
We play with different roles depending our goal

-> Dramaturgical nature of social life

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Collective-level effects: Society made through interaction of
humans via use of symbols
“Society is an order created or accomplished by the capacities of the members
themselves. It is the outcome of innumerable occasions of interaction, each one
accomplished by interpreting, meaning-attributing actors who can make sense of the
social setting in which they find themselves and who choose course of action
accordingly” (Jones 2003: 20).

Undeterminateness of outcome + existence of human creativity

-> High level of social change

How is order achieved? Interaction outcomes also reproduced

social order because (a) we seek to gain acceptance by power and
(b) modular use of available symbols commonly stereotypical

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Ervin Goffman (19221982)

Presentation of Self in Everyday Life

Social life as a stage in which individuals play roles

Mannerism, objects, space used in interactions. Taken from culture.

We all use complex strategies to maximize persuasiveness of our

acting. Yet strategies adopted from preexisting standards.
(e.g. infallibility, hide dirty work, unidimensionality, emotional
control, use of teams, regions)

Trained action maximizes persuasiveness

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Conclusions
Consensus
Conflict Approach Action theory
Approach
Orientation Macrolevel Macrolevel Microlevel
Interrelated social Sum of groups with
Conceptualization domains and different resources
Sum of interactions
of society corresponding & opposite
norms interests
How is society How is society How is individual
Core interest
integrated? divided? action determined?
Inequalities in Efforts at
Main mechanism Social values/roles
resources persuasiveness
Domination by
Definitions of Stereotypical use of
Production of order force or through
appropriateness available symbols
socialization
Mobilization of the
Demographic Human creativity &
Production of social disadvantage or
growth, emergence unintended
change adaptation by the
of new norms consequences
advantaged

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