7

TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION
TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION

7.3
Trigonometric Substitution

In this section, we will learn about:

The various types of trigonometric substitutions.
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION

In finding the area of a circle or an ellipse,

an integral of the form  a  x dx arises,
2 2

where a > 0.

 a x
2 2
 If it were x a  x dx , the substitution u
2 2

would be effective.

 However, as it stands,  a 2  x 2 dx is more difficult.

TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION

If we change the variable from x to θ by

the substitution x = a sin θ, the identity
1 – sin2θ = cos2θ lets us lose the root sign.

 This is because: a 2  x 2  a 2  a 2 sin 2 

 a 2 (1  sin 2  )
 a cos 
2 2

 a cos 
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION

Notice the difference between the substitution

u = a2 – x2 and the substitution x = a sin θ.

 In the first, the new variable is a function of

the old one.

 In the second, the old variable is a function of

the new one.
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION

In general, we can make a substitution

of the form x = g(t)
by using the Substitution Rule in reverse.

 To make our calculations simpler, we assume g

has an inverse function, that is, g is one-to-one.
INVERSE SUBSTITUTION

Here, if we replace u by x and x by t in the

Substitution Rule (Equation 4 in Section 5.5),
we obtain:

 f ( x)dx   f ( g (t )) g '(t )dt

 This kind of substitution is called
inverse substitution.
INVERSE SUBSTITUTION

We can make the inverse substitution

x = a sin θ, provided that it defines
a one-to-one function.

 This can be accomplished by restricting θ

to lie in the interval [-π/2, π/2].
TABLE OF TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTIONS

Here, we list trigonometric substitutions that

are effective for the given radical expressions
because of the specified trigonometric
identities.
TABLE OF TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTIONS

In each case, the restriction on θ is

imposed to ensure that the function that
defines the substitution is one-to-one.
 These are the same intervals used in Section 1.6
in defining the inverse functions.
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 1

Evaluate 9 x 2

 x 2
dx

 Let x = 3 sin θ, where –π/2 ≤ θ ≤ π/2.

 Then, dx = 3 cos θ dθ and

9  x 2  9  9sin 2   9 cos 2   3 cos   3cos 

 Note that cos θ ≥ 0 because –π/2 ≤ θ ≤ π/2.)

TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 1

Thus, the Inverse Substitution Rule

gives: 9 x2
3cos 
 x 2
dx  
9sin 
2
3cos  d

cos 
2
 d
sin 
2

  cot 2 d
  (csc   1) d
2

  cot     C
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 1

As this is an indefinite integral, we must

return to the original variable x.

This can be done in either of two ways.

TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 1

One, we can use trigonometric

identities to express cot θ in terms
of sin θ = x/3.
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 1

Two, we can draw a diagram, where

θ is interpreted as an angle of a right
triangle.
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 1

Since sin θ = x/3, we label the opposite

side and the hypotenuse as having lengths
x and 3.
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 1

Then, the Pythagorean Theorem gives

the length of the adjacent side as:
9 x 2
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 1

So, we can simply read the value of cot θ

from the figure: 9 x 2
cot  
x
 Although θ > 0 here,
this expression
for cot θ is
valid even
when θ < 0.
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 1

As sin θ = x/3, we have θ = sin-1(x/3).

Hence,

9 x2
9 x 2
1  x 
 x 2
dx  
x 2
 sin    C
3
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 2

Find the area enclosed by

the ellipse x2
y 2

2
 2 1
a b
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 2

Solving the equation of the ellipse for y,

we get
y 2
x 2
a x
2 2

2
 1 2  2
b a a

or b 2
y a x 2

a
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 2

As the ellipse is symmetric with respect

to both axes, the total area A is four times
the area in the first quadrant.
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 2

The part of the ellipse in the first quadrant

is given by the function
b 2
y a x 2
0 xa
a
 Hence,
a b 2
1
4 A a  x 2 dx
0 a
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 2

To evaluate this integral,

we substitute x = a sin θ.

Then, dx = a cos θ dθ.

TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 2

To change the limits of integration,

we note that:

 When x = 0, sin θ = 0; so θ = 0

 When x = a, sin θ = 1; so θ = π/2

TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 2

Also, since 0 ≤ θ ≤ π/2,

a  x  a  a sin 
2 2 2 2 2

 a cos 
2 2

 a cos 
 a cos 
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 2
b a 2
Therefore, A  4 0 a  x dx
2

a
b  /2
 4  a cos   a cos  d
a 0
 /2
 4ab  cos 2  d
0
 /2
 4ab  1
2 (1  cos 2 ) d
0

 2ab[  sin 2 ]0
1
2
 /2

 
 2ab   0  0    ab
2 
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 2

We have shown that the area of an ellipse

with semiaxes a and b is πab.

 In particular, taking a = b = r, we have proved

the famous formula that the area of a circle with
radius r is πr2.
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Note

The integral in Example 2 was a definite

integral.

So, we changed the limits of integration,

and did not have to convert back to
the original variable x.
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 3
1
Find x 2
x 4
2
dx

 Let x = 2 tan θ, –π/2 < θ < π/2.

 Then, dx = 2 sec2 θ dθ and x 2  4  4(tan 2   1)

 4sec 2 
 2 sec 
 2sec 
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 3

 Thus, we have:

dx 2sec  d
2

x 2
x 4
2

4 tan   2sec 
2

1 sec 
  d
4 tan  2
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 3

To evaluate this trigonometric integral,

we put everything in terms of sin θ and
cos θ:

sec  1 cos  cos 

2
  2 
tan  cos  sin  sin 
2 2
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 3zz

Therefore, making the substitution u = sin θ,

we have: dx 1 cos 
x 2
  2 d
x 2  4 4 sin 
1 du
  2
4 u
1 1
  C
4 u
1 csc 
 C   C
4sin  4
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 3

We use
the figure to
determine that:
csc   x  4 / x
2

dx x2  4
 Hence,
x 2
x 4
2

4x
C
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 4
x
Find  x 4
2
dx

 It would be possible to use the trigonometric

substitution x = 2 tan θ (as in Example 3).
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 4

 However, the direct substitution u = x2 + 4

is simpler.

 This is because, then, du = 2x dx

and
x 1 du
 x 4
2
dx  
2 u
 u C
 x 4 C
2
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Note

Example 4 illustrates the fact that, even

when trigonometric substitutions are possible,
they may not give the easiest solution.

 You should look for a simpler method first.

TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 5

Evaluate dx
 x a
2 2

where a > 0.
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION E. g. 5—Solution 1

We let x = a sec θ, where 0 < θ < π/2 or

π < θ < π/2.

Then, dx = a sec θ tan θ dθ and

x  a  a (sec   1)
2 2 2 2

 a tan 
2 2

 a tan   a tan 
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION E. g. 5—Solution 1

Therefore,
dx a sec  tan 
 x a
2 2

a tan 
d

  sec  d
 ln sec   tan   C
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION E. g. 5—Solution 1

The triangle in the figure gives:

tan   x  a / a
2 2
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION E. g. 5—Solution 1

So, we have:

dx x x a2 2

 x a
2 2
 ln 
a a
C

 ln x  x  a  ln a  C
2 2
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION E. g. 5—Sol. 1 (For. 1)

Writing C1 = C – ln a, we have:

dx
  ln x  x  a  C1
2 2

x a
2 2
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION E. g. 5—Solution 2

For x > 0, the hyperbolic substitution

x = a cosh t can also be used.

 Using the identity cosh2y – sinh2y = 1,

we have:
x 2  a 2  a 2 (cosh 2 t  1)
 a sinh t
2 2

 a sinh t
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION E. g. 5—Solution 2

Since dx = a sinh t dt,

we obtain:
dx a sinh t dt
 x a
2 2

a sinh t
  dt
t C
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION E. g. 5—Sol. 2 (For. 2)

Since cosh t = x/a, we have t = cosh-1(x/a)

and

dx x

1
 cosh    C
x a
2 2
a
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION E. g. 5—Sol. 2 (For. 2)

Although Formulas 1 and 2 look quite

different, they are actually equivalent by
Formula 4 in Section 3.11
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Note

As Example 5 illustrates, hyperbolic

substitutions can be used instead of
trigonometric substitutions, and sometimes
they lead to simpler answers.

 However, we usually use trigonometric substitutions,

because trigonometric identities are more familiar
than hyperbolic identities.
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 6
3
3 3/2 x
Find
0 (4 x  9)
2 3/ 2
dx

 First, we note that (4 x 2  9)3/ 2  ( 4 x 2  9)3

 So, trigonometric substitution is appropriate.

TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 6

4 x  9 is not quite one of the

2

expressions in the table of trigonometric

substitutions.

 However, it becomes one if we make

the preliminary substitution u = 2x.
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 6

When we combine this with the tangent

substitution, we have x  32 tan .

This gives dx  sec  d and

3 2
2

4 x  9  9 tan   9
2 2

 3sec 
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 6

When x = 0, tan θ = 0; so θ = 0.

When x = 3 3 / 2, tan θ = 3; so θ = π/3.

TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 6
3 3/2
3
x  / 3 27tan 3
 3 2

0 (4 x  9)
2 3/ 2
dx  
0
8

27 sec 
3 2 sec  d

 /3 tan 3

 16 
3
d
0 sec 
 / 3 sin 
3
 163  d
0 cos 
2

 / 3 1  cos 
2
 163  sin  d
0 cos 
2
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 6

Now, we substitute u = cos θ so that

du = - sin θ dθ.

 When θ = 0, u = 1.

 When θ = π/3, u = ½.
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 6
3
3 3/2 x
Therefore,
0 (4 x  9)
2 3/ 2
dx

1/ 2 1 u 2
 3
16 1  u 2
du
1/ 2
 3
16 1  (1  u 2 ) du
1/ 2
 1
 3
16 u 
 u 
1

 163  12  2   (1  1)   3
32
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 7
x
Evaluate  3  2x  x 2
dx

 We can transform the integrand into a function

for which trigonometric substitution is appropriate,
by first completing the square under the root sign:

3  2 x  x 2  3  ( x 2  2 x)
 3  1  ( x 2  2 x  1)
 4  ( x  1) 2
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 7

This suggests we make the substitution

u = x + 1.

 Then, du = dx and x = u – 1.

x u 1
 So,  3  2x  x2
dx  
4  u2
du
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 7

We now substitute u  2sin  .

This gives
du  2 cos  d and 4  u  2 cos 
2
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Example 7

So,  x 2sin   1
dx   2 cos  d
3  2x  x2 2 cos 
  (2sin   1) d
 2 cos     C
u
1
  4  u  sin    C
2

2
1  x  1 
  3  2 x  x  sin 
2
C
 2 
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION

The figure shows the graphs of the integrand

in Example 7 and its indefinite integral (with
C = 0).

 Which is which?