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Introduction
Complexities resulting from the deregulation of power sector in Nigeria,
the possible introduction of distributed generation and increase in the
number of large machines become a thing of concern, hence the
stability of the system is at stake.
It is expected that after a large generator is connected to a system or a
large load is removed from a system, the disturbance that results from
any of the activity should not stay long in the system.
Steady-State Stability
Although most instabilities occurred during transient state, but the
steady state also has its own small swings which can be understood
between two equipment; a generator and a motor.
For a safer system, the system frequency and voltage have the
following ranges; frequency (±1%) and voltage (±6%).
Simplified two-machine power system
Where EG and EM are the internal voltages of the two machines and
θ is the phase angle between them.
Any attempt to transmit more power than Pmax will cause the two
machines to pull out of step.
From the above equation, we deduced the things that can affect
stability in the steady state as follows:
• Internal voltage of the generator(s)
• Reactance(s) of the machines and transmission system
• Internal voltage of the motor(s), if any
Transient and Dynamic Stability
The factors that affect steady state stability are the basis also during
transient state.
Transient stability is the ability of a power system to experience a
sudden change in generation, load, or system characteristics without an
elongated loss of synchronism.
For basic understanding this, we take a look at the steady state torque
equation;
T is the mechanical shaft torque
P is the number of poles of machine
φSR is the air-gap flux
FR is the rotor field MMF
δR is the mechanical angle between rotor and stator field parts
Two-machine systems
When two machines are tied together, the system will be more
complicated compared to a single machine discussed above.
The medium through which this occurs is the air-gap flux. This is a
function of machine terminal voltage, which is affected by the
characteristics of the transmission system, the amount of power being
transmitted, the power factor, etc.
Multi-Machine Systems
Stability analysis of more complex systems, where machines are of
comparable sizes and are separated by substantial impedance, will
usually require a full-scale computer stability study.
Results of Instability
• High transient mechanical torque and currents
• Loss of supply to some areas
• For the simple system below;
Single-pole tripping (SPT) schemes trip only the faulted phase for
single-phase-to-ground faults. The line continues transmitting
power over the two healthy phases during SPO condition. The
power transfer reduces the chance of loosing synchronism.
When the ratio of the sources voltage magnitudes are different from
1 (k≠ 1), it can be shown that the impedance trajectory would
correspond to circles as in the figure below:
Trajectory of the measured impedance at the relay during power swing for different values of source voltage
ratio.
Power swing detection methods
Severe system disturbance could cause large separation of rotor
angles between groups of generators and eventual loss of
synchronism between groups of generators. When two areas of a
power system, or interconnected systems lose synchronism, the areas
must be separated from each other quickly and automatically to avoid
equipment damage and power blackouts.
Ideally, the systems should be separated at pre-determined locations
to maintain a load-generation balance in each of the separated areas.
System separation may not always achieve the desired load-
generation balance. In cases where the separated area load is in
excess of local generation, some form of load shedding is necessary
The Out-of-Step Trip (OST) function accomplishes this separation. The
main purpose of OST function is to differentiate stable from unstable
power swings and initiate system area separation at pre-determined
network locations and at appropriate source-voltage phase-angle
difference between systems, in order to maintain power system
stability and continuity of service.
The required settings for PSB and OST elements could be difficult
in many applications. Extensive stability studies may be needed
resulting in huge expense.
Concentric characteristic schemes
This is accomplished by placing two concentric impedance
characteristics separated by ΔZ. If the measured impedance
crosses the concentric characteristics before the timer expires,
the relay declares a fault. Otherwise, if the timer expires before the
impedance crosses both impedance characteristics, the relay classifies
this a power swing event.
The advantage of this concentric characteristic is that the power
swing condition is checked before one of the tripping zones is
entered allowing tripping elements to be blocked if desirable.
This advantage is realized by setting the concentric zone larger
than the largest tripping zone one seeks to control. The major
setting effort is limited to ΔZ and the timer .
A drawback of the concentric circular characteristic is load
encroachment. Variations in the characteristic that have been
devised to address load encroachment.
Two-blinder scheme
The two blinder scheme is based on the same principle of measuring
the time needed for the impedance vector to travel a certain delta
impedance. The time measurement starts when the impedance vector
crosses the outer blinder (RRO) and stops when the inner blinder (RRI)
is crossed.
If the measured time is above the setting for delta time, a power swing
situation is detected.
One advantage of the blinder scheme is that it can be used
independent of the distance zone characteristic.
Two-Blinder PBS and OST scheme
Swing-center-voltge (scv) method
The swing-center-voltage (SCV) is defined as the voltage at the location
of a two-source equivalent where the voltage is zero when the
angles between the two sources are 1800 apart. When the system
goes into OOS situation after some disturbance the angle difference
between the two sources, δ will increase as a function of time.
An approximation of the SCV magnitude can be made through the
use of locally available quantities.
where
SCV1 is the estimated magnitude of the of the positive-sequence SCV.
V1S is the magnitude of the measure positive-sequence voltage V1S