Climatology

Origin of the Atmosphere on Earth

• Early atmosphere has H
and He in abundance -
lighter gases escaped
• During early life of the
earth – extensive
volcanism- degassing. N,
S, Water Vapour, Argon
and CO2 came out
Origin of the Atmosphere on Earth
• Water vapour
condensed – clouds –
rainfall –washed out
bulk of the CO2 into
Oceans. Co2 = 0.03%
• Oxygen – from
anaerobic respiration of
bacteria like,
Cynobacteria
 Proportion of gases
Gas Proportion
Nitrogen 78%
Oxygen 21%
Argon 0.93%
Carbon dioxide 0.03%
Neon 0.0018%
Helium 0.00005%
ozone 0.00006%
 Proportion of gases
N, O, H and Argon are permanent gases
Water vapour, Co2, ozone -> variable gases,
GHG
N, Argon – inert gases
Atmospheric gases- no chemical interaction
among them
They don’t lose their properties
They act as a single unified gas
Structure of atmosphere
Troposphere
• 90% of atmosphere
within 32 km
• Tropopause = Height 8
km at poles, 18 km at
equator
• At equator
cumulonimbus clouds
Greenhouse effect in troposphere
• Temperature decrease as
height increases
• Transparent to insolation
(shortwave)
• Heated by terrestrial
radiation (longwave)
• GHGs absorbs long wave
terrestrial radiation
 Question
Q. normally, the temperature decreases
with increase in height from the earth’s
surface, because, UPSC
1. Atmosphere can be heated upward
only from earth’s surface
Prelims
2. There is more moisture in upper
atmosphere 2012
3. The air is less dense in upper
atmosphere
 Question
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3
UPSC
c) 1 and 3
d) 1,2 and 3
Prelims
Ans. C) 2012
Less dense = less amount of GHGs =
low temp
stratosphere
• Temperature
increases with
height
• Because of the
presence of ozone
layer
• Ozone absorbs UV
rays from isolation
 Question
Q. The jet aircrafts fly very easily and
smoothly in lower stratosphere. Why?
1. There are no clouds or water vapour UPSC
in lower stratosphere
2. There are no vertical winds in lower
Prelims
stratosphere
2011
Ans. 1 in wrong, 2 is correct
Mesosphere

• Absence of GHGs
• Temperature decreases
with height
Noctilucent clouds
Mesospheric clouds
• Clouds visible at
high latitudes
• During summer
season
• Condensation of
mixture of meteoric
dust and some
moisture
Thermosphere
• Temperature increase
with height
• Gases in ionic state – trap
insolation – extremely
hot
• But ions are highly
dispersed
• Up to 800 km from earth
Ionosphere
• From 80km to 640
km
• Number of ionic
layers
• Useful in radio-
communication
Ionosphere
• High energy sunrays
and cosmic rays break
the atoms of air
molecules – become
ionised (+ve charged)
• Behave as free particles
• At night time, only
cosmic rays ionization -
weak
 Layers of Ionosphere
layers height Frequency Presence formation

D 60-90km LF Day-time Solar

radiation
E 99-130km MF, HF Day-time UV with N
molecule

F 150- MF, HF Day &night

380km

G >400km MF, HF Day & night

 Question
Q. A layer in Earth’s atmosphere called
ionosphere facilitates radio
communication. Why? UPSC
1. Presence of ozone cause reflection
of radio waves to earth
Prelims
2. Radio waves has long wavelength
2011
Both statements are wrong
Exosphere
• Beyond 640 km
• Highly rarified
atmosphere
• Very high temperature-
but different from air
temperature- because
no existence of air-
temp can’t be felt
Aurora
• Glowing lights at
mid-nights at high
latitudes
• At height of
exosphere and
magnetosphere
Aurora
• sun emit solar
wind/storm from its
corona
• Solar wind consist of
plasma (free electrons
and +ve ions)
• Interaction of solar
wind with earth’s
magnetosphere -
disturbance
Auroras
• Collision of charged
particles (isonization) in
magnetosphere
• Ionised particles emit
light –release energy
• charged particles interact
with geomagnetic field
lines
• Thus, visible on high
latitudes
Heat budget
• The average temperature
of the earth 15 degree
• Earth maintains influx
and out-flux of the
energy, but out-flux is not
immediate, it has long
time gap. That is why, the
temperature is
maintained.
Heat budget - Incoming
• First 35%
absorbed by
Ozone layer
• Then 15% by
cloud cover
• Only 50% energy
reached to the
earth surface
Heat budget - outgoing
• 20% is lost in latent
heat of evaporation
10% lost in sensible
heat (temperature of
the body)
• 15% absorbed by
GHGs
• Remaining 5% was
released in the space
Albedo
• Ratio between the total
solar radiation falling
upon a surface and the
amount reflected
• Represents as %
• Earth’s avg. Albedo =
35%
• Lowest- dark soil
• highest - snowfall
 Albedo - table
surface Albedo
Fresh snow 80%-90%
Desert 35-45%
Grasses 26%
Crops 15%
Brick - concrete 10-20%
 Question
Q. Which one of the following reflect
back more sunlight as compared to other
three? UPSC
a) sandy desert
b) Paddy crops
Prelims
c) Land covered with fresh snow
2010
d) Prairie land

Ans. C)
 Movement of air
Horizontal vertical

when there is pressure  when air get warm, gets

gradient expands, becomes lighter
from high pressure to => move upwards =>
low pressure => convection
advection
Vertical movement of air - instability
• When air gets hotter than
surrounding air, it rises
upward
• If it has moisture - latent
heat of condensation –
more heated – will go up
- form clouds -can bring
rainfall = instability
Vertical movement of air - stability
• When air is cooler than
surrounding –it cannot
move upward
• sinking air
• atmospheric stability or
anti-cyclonic condition
• High pressure on ground
Low pressure – High pressure
Adiabatic lapse rate
• The rate at which air
packet cools while rising
• Avg adiabatic lapse rate
is 6.4 degree/km
• That is air packet gets
cool by 6.4 degree after
covering one km upward
Wet adiabatic lapse rate
• if air packet has high
moisture content- not get
cool so fast.
• Its adiabatic lapse rate
<6.4 degree/km ~ 4
degree/km => WALR
• Wet air can reach higher
distances with low lapse
rate => create instability
Dry Adiabatic Lapse rate

• If air packet is dry, it does

not have much moisture,
it will get cool very fast.
More than 6.4 degree/km
– like, 10 degree/km.
• Dry air create stable
condition
 Conditions of stability and Instability
situation condition
Conditional stability when wet ALR< normal
ALR < dry ALR
Absolute stability when normal ALR< wet
ALR < Dry ALR

Absolute instability when wet ALR< Dry

ALR< normal ALR
Temperature Inversion
• Normally, with
increasing height
temperature of air
decreasing, but
reverse is happened
than it is called
temperature
inversion
 Ex. Of temperature Inversion
• 1st
• At Tropopause –
temperature starts
increasing from
here
• So air packet reach
till here, start
moving downwards
 Ex. Of temperature Inversion
• 2nd
• A cool winter night, the
air above the cold surface
gets cool.
• But the air layer above
that cool layer is till
warmer. Then, by going
upward, air does not get
cooler but warmer
 Ex. Of temperature Inversion
• 3th
• Valley inversion
• winter – cool air
descends to valley
• Uplift the warm air of
valley
• Descending cool air-
damage crops- frost
 Implications of temperature inversion
Formation of fog Warm air cooled by cold air
below – condensation – tiny
water droplets- low visibility

Formation of frost Water moisture frozen with

contact cold surface- damage
to crops

Atmospheric stability Prevents upward or downward

movement of air- Discourage
rainfall
 Question
Q. What do you understand by
phenomenon of “temperature inversion”
in meteorology? How does it affect UPSC
weather and habitants of the place? (5)

mains
2013
 Condensation of water droplets
Condensation of water droplet Result
At heights Clouds
At lower level Fog
on the cold surface Dew drop
Turn into ice crystal in extreme Frost
cold conditions
 Reason for formation of fog
Advection Moving of warm air over cold
Radiation Winter nights – loss of heat
due to terrestial radiation –
cold surface. Moving of warm
air over cold surface
Ocean Meeting of cold and warm
current ocean currents
 Decreasing level of visibility

Mist Haze Fog Smog

 comparison
fog smog

Water droplet condensed  Water droplet condensed

around a dust particle around a particle of
It reduces the visibility, pollutant, like SO2
damage the crops  Reduce visibility + health
hazard
 comparison
Smog Photochemical smog

It occurs in cool humid  It occurs in warm, dry and

climate sunny climate
It is a mixture of smoke,  Mixture unsaturated
fog and sulphur dioxide hydrocarbons and nitrogen
(SO2). oxides (NO2) in presence
of sunlight
 Its components are ozone,
nitric oxide, acrolein, and
formaldehyde and
peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN).
 Question
Q. Photochemical smog is resultant of
reaction among
a) NO2, O3 and peroxyacetyl nitrate in UPSC
the presence of sunlight
b) CO2, O2 and peroxyacetyl nitrate in
Prelims
the presence of sunlight
2013
c) CO,CO2 and NO2 at low
temperature
d) High concentration of NO2, O3 and
CO in the evening
 Question
Photochemical smog:
NO2, Ozone + sunlight
UPSC
Ans. A)
Prelims
2013
Structure of atmosphere
Vertical Movement of air
Adiabatic lapse rate
Temperature inversion and its effects
fog
 precipitation

evaporation Humidity condensation Precipitation

Evaporation
1) High temperature
2) LP conditions
3) Fast moving wind
• Water vapour evaporate
from the water body
• Evaporation adds
moisture in the air
 Humidity
Absolute Humidity Specific Humidity

Weight of water vapour  Weight of water vapour

in unit volume of moist per unit weight of dry air
air
 Precipitation
• Precipitation – when air • Precipitation depends
is saturated with water upon temperature and
vapour and any extra moisture content of the
addition result in air
precipitation • Hot air – saturation reach
Relative Humidity: with more moisture
• Amount of water vapour content than cold air
present in air – to amount
of water vapour required
for saturation
Types of clouds
 Types of rainfall
Convectional rainfall Orographic rainfall
 Types of rainfall
Cyclonic rainfall Frontal rainfall
 Pressure system of the world
Entire earth is divided into 4 large pressure belts
In reality, belts are not continuous but pockets
of low and high pressure.
But pressure can be created through thermal or
dynamic reasons
Thermal: high temperature=> LP, low
temperature => HP
Dynamic: air rises => LP, air descends => HP
Pressure system of the world
• 4 belts:
• equatorial low
pressure belt
• sub-tropical high
pressure belt
• sub-polar low
pressure belt
• Polar High pressure
area
 Equatorial LP belt
• Constant insolation
• Air gets warm -LP
• Air move upward ->
cloud formation ->
instability -> rain in the
evening daily
• Cumulonimbus clouds
• Convectional rainfall
 Equatorial LP belt
• Absence of advection of
air
• Belt of calm / Doldrum
• Because light, feeble
winds - calm region
 Sub-tropical HP belt (STHP)
• The air above equator
move towards pole, but
coriolis force - their path
get deflected.
• The length of path
increases. Their energy
reduced in mid-path -
cooled. air subside near
30-40 deg latitude.
 Sub-tropical HP belt (STHP)
• As descending air – HP
• Dynamically induced HP
• Called ‘horse latitude’
 Sub-polar LP belt (SPLP)
• From the pole, cold
winds move towards
equator
• The both warm and
cold winds collide, the
warmer winds from
STHP rise above the
cold polar winds
• This rising of warmer
wind near 50-60 degree
create LP
 Polar high
• Air risen at SPLP,
descends at poles
• High pressure
conditions
• Thermally induced
 Wind system of the world
Permanent Planetary
wind winds
Seasonal
winds winds

Local winds
Variable
wind Mt.-valley
breeze
Land-sea
breeze
Planetary winds
• winds blowing at the
same direction
throughout the year
• cover large distances.
• Horizontal movement,
Pressure belt system
provide them the
pressure gradient
• Corilis force modify
their direction
Trade winds
• The winds move towards
equatorial low pressure =
ITCZ
• ITCZ – inter tropical
convergence zone, where
wind converges
• Their direction is east to
west due to coriolis force
Tropical deserts and trade winds
• Tropical easterlies
flows– east to west
• Wind becomes dry
when they reaches
the western coast of
the continents
• Off –shore trade
winds
• Trade wind deserts
Tropical desert and cold currents

• 2nd
• Cold currents
provide desiccating
effect to trade wind
deserts
• Cold current flow
on western margins
of continents
 Question
Q. Major hot deserts in northern
hemisphere are located between 20-30
degree North latitudes and on the UPSC
western side of the continents. Why?
(10)
Mains
2013
Westerlies
• From west to east
• From STHP to SPLP
Westerlies
• From west to east
• From STHP to SPLP
• Less landmass in
southern hemisphere
• Fast flowing winds in
the open sea
• Roaring 40s, furious
50s, shrinking 60s
and screaming 70s
 Question
Q. Westerlies in southern hemisphere
are stronger and persistent than northern
hemisphere. Why? UPSC
1. Southern hemisphere has less
landmass as compared to northern
hemisphere Prelims
2. Coriolis force is higher in southern 2011
hemisphere as compared to northern
hemisphere
Ans. 1 is correct, 2 is wrong
Polar Easterlies

• From east to west

• From poles to
SPLP
Apparent movement of the sun
Summer Winter
movement of the pressure system
Summer Winter
 Wind system of the world
Permanent Planetary
wind winds
Seasonal
winds winds

Local winds
Variable
wind Mt.-valley
breeze
Land-sea
breeze
 Seasonal winds
• Monsoon winds:
seasonal reversal of
winds
• Feature of tropical
latitude
• In winter – trade wind
blows north to south, in
summer – trade wind
blows south to north
[but in limited area]
 Monson winds
• Due to apparent northward
movement of the sun in
summer. Thus, the ITCZ
(LP) also moves upward
• Thus, the area which was
under northern trade winds
in winter, will come under
southern trade winds in the
summer
 Wind system of the world
Permanent Planetary
wind winds
Seasonal
winds winds

Local winds
Variable
wind Mt.-valley
breeze
Land-sea
breeze
 Local winds : mountains winds
Cold wind Warm winds

country wind Mountains Wind

Greece Gragale Alps Fohn
Italy Tremonta Rockies Chinook
Adriatic bora Andes Zonda
sea
 Local winds : land
Cold wind: land Warm wind: desert

HP condition in winter desert Winds

Divergence of cold air Sahara Sirocco
Siberia – Buran Egypt Khamsin
Canada - Blizzard Libya Gibli
Gulf of Harmattan
Guinea
 Local winds: India
Pre-monsoon
summer
thunderstorm
Hot-dusty wind = ‘loo’ states Wind
Bihar, WB, Kalbaishakhi
Assam
KN Blossom
shower
KR Mango
shower
 Wind system of the world
Permanent Planetary
wind winds
Seasonal
winds winds

Local winds
Variable
wind Mt.-valley
breeze
Land-sea
breeze
Mountain breeze
• During night time: top
gets cooler than valley
= HP, valley =LP
• Wind move hill-top to
valley => mountain
breeze
• Agriculture –frost bite,
chill in habitation in
the valley
Valley breeze
• During day time:
top gets warmer
than valley = LP,
valley = HP
• So wind moves
from valley to the
top => valley
breeze
 Wind system of the world
Permanent Planetary
wind winds
Seasonal
winds winds

Local winds
Variable
wind Mt.-valley
breeze
Land-sea
breeze
Land breezes

• Differential cooling of
land and water
• During night:
• land cooler =HP,
• water =LP
• Wind move land to
water => land breeze
Sea-breeze

• During day time:

• land gets warmer =>LP ,
water =HP
• Wind move from water
to land => sea breeze
Pressure belts of the world
Planetary wind system
Variable winds
Seasonal, local winds
Mountain- valley breeze
Land-sea breeze
Upper tropospheric winds
• Around tropopause, there
is only one gradient
• Wind accumulated above
equator and rarified
atmosphere above poles
• HP at the equator and LP
at the poles
Geo-strophic winds
• strong coriolis force at
tropopause
• Because friction is less
- high speed - stronger
the coriolis force
• So the deflection is 90
degree
• Such winds called geo-
strophic winds
 Westerlies winds
• The upper
tropospheric
winds / geo-
strophic winds
blow from west
to east at the
very high speed
Rossby waves
• Westerlies at poles – to
maintain the angular
momentum- they
meander => Rossby
waves
• Rossby waves do not
meander consistently,
but follow a cycle =
Index cycle
Jet streams

• In westerlies, there
are strong, narrow
bands of high speed
wind => Jet stream
• Speed of Jet stream
300kmph
Jet streams location
• There are situated at
the margins of
meridional cells
• 4 permanent Jet
streams: 2 Polar Jet
and 2 Sub-Tropical
Westerly Jet STWJ
 Jet streams
Permanent jet stream Temporary jet stream
Jet streams
• Jet stream embedded
in westerlies (Rossby
waves) at high
latitude, cause
pressure variability
• That’s why they are
called travelling
depression
Jet Stream – travelling depressions
 Weather of Mid and high latitude
Weather of higher latitude is more complex than
weather of equatorial or tropical regions
Because tropical and equatorial region are heat
surplus region– thermal reasons play the dominant
role.
But higher latitude are heat deficit region – dynamic
reasons play dominant role
These include – localised + upper-tropospheric
circulations (Rossby waves, Jet streams, temperate
cyclones)
Air mass
• Large extensive body of
air-mass (1000sqkm)
• Height upto Tropopause
• At particular height, one
air mass will have
uniform temperature and
moisture across its width
• Airmasses can be
differentiate according to
their temperature and
moisture content
Air mass
• Air mass acquired
properties from the
source regions – land,
marine, polar, arctic,
Antarctic = give them
identity. Ex. mP, cT
• Extensive homogeneous
surface + longer stay
(HP)
Air masses
• Air masses do not stay at
their source regions
forever, they move out.
While moving they came
across other air masses.
Front
• The relative difference
between temperature and
moisture decide their
interaction with one
another
• The border/ meeting
region of the two air-
mass => Front
Cold front
• If cold air mass move
faster than the other than
it will lift the warmer one
upward => cold front
• the slope will be steep =
there will be sudden up-
liftment of the warm air =
cumulonimbus clouds
=frontal rainfall
Warm front
• If warmer air mass is
more active than cold
front => warm front
• slope will be gentler
= there won’t be
sudden up-liftment of
warm air = uniform
prolonged rain –
drizzle
Fronts
Frontal cyclone
• Also called as
extra-tropical
cyclone, travelling
depressions, cold-
core cyclone, wave
cyclones
Meaning of cyclone
1) Intense LP system
2) Air converges towards
the centre
3) Closed isobars
4) In Northern hemisphere
convergence – anti-
clockwise
 Isobar
Normal isobar Closed isobar
 Conditions for LP
Thermally induced Dynamically induced

Because of high  Upliftment of warm air

temperature  Ex. LP at sub-polar LP
Ex. LP at equator belt
Convectional rainfall at  Frontal rainfall
equator
Development of Frontal cyclone
• Movement of airmasses
from their source region
• The warm and cold air
mass face each other
• A front is created
between them
• Called Stationary front
 Formative stage of frontal cyclone
Location of air masses Circular movement
Development of Frontal cyclone
• Cold air mass pushed the
warm air mass
• Forced upliftment of
warm air mass at the cold
front =LP
• Two cold air mass
convergence – circular
due to coriolis force
 Mature stage
Interaction of air masses LP – closed isobars
Occluded front
• One cold air mass climb
over other cold air mass–
warm front is destroyed
• Called occluded front
• Rapid change in
temperature and pressure
• Unstable weather
conditions
Dissipation of frontal cyclone
• Frontolysis – no
great temperature
difference between
two cold air
masses – front
dissipated – LP
reduced – cyclone
dissipated
Stationary front Front
Occluded front Frontolysis
Path of the temperate cyclone

• Always west to east

direction
• Because influence of the
wetserlies
• Gradual movement-
Predictable weather
Distribution of temperate cyclones
Tropical cyclone
Hurricane –N. America
Typhoon - China
• Late summer
• Increased sea surface
temperature = LP
• Convergence of air
around LP zone
• Rising moist (wet) air
=> absolute instability
Tropical cyclone
• Cloud formation =more
and more moisture –
latent heat of evaporation
=> cumulo nimbus cloud
=> cyclone
• Coriolis force induce
spiral movement of air
Mature Tropical cyclone
• Intensification of LP
• Converging air near
water surface
• Circulating air rises
above (coriolis force)
• Diverging air at the top
of cyclone
Eye of the tropical cyclone
• At the centre of the
cyclone – ‘eye’ of the
tropical cyclone.
• It is a pressure defect.
Because, at ‘eye’ a narrow
stream of wind descend =
is HP at ‘eye’
• At the eye, there is clear
sky.
• Beyond eye wall –
extreme low pressure
Properties of tropical cyclones
• Move swiftly
• It is fuelled by
moisture – so when
cyclone is cut-off from
sea and move towards
land – it starts
weakening
Distribution of tropical cyclone
 comparison
Temperate cyclone Tropical cyclone

30-40 degree latitude  8-20 degree latitude

Dynamically induced  Thermally induced
Due to frontal  Due to increasing SST
interaction  Small area
Formed over large area  Move east to west
Move west to east  Swift movement-
Gradual movement – difficult to predict path
predictable
 comparison
Temperate cyclone Tropical cyclone

Wind speed 40-50 kmph  Wind speed >120 kmph

Pressure gradient 980  Pressure gradient <880
mb mb
Powerful on land  Weakens on land
Affect mainland  Affect only coastal areas
More time to dissipate  Quickly dissipate after
coming on land
 Question
Q. Tropical cyclones are largely
confined to South China Sea, Bay of
Bengal and Gulf of Mexico. Why? (10) UPSC

Mains
2014
Reason for location of Tropical cyclone
1) Tropical water
2) Warm ocean
currents
3) Increase SST in
late summer
4) Tropical cyclone
move east to
west
5) Landmass on
western coast