Heat Transfer Enhancement

By
Hassanain Ghani Hameed
 Lecture Five

Performance Evaluation Criteria

(PEC) For Two-phase Flow
1. Introduction

This lecture describes quantitative methods to define the performance benefits of

enhanced heat transfer surfaces in a heat exchanger, for which at least one of the
fluids is evaporating or condensing. Pressure drop of a two-phase fluid may reduce
the mean temperature difference for heat exchange. This situation does not exist for
heat exchange between single-phase fluids. This lecture shows how the performance
evaluation criteria (PEC) previously defined for single-phase flow may be modified
to account for the effect of pressure drop.
Generalized PEC are defined for three basic applications of two-phase heat
exchangers, and two examples of PEC analysis are presented. The PEC analysis for
two-phase heat transfer was originally formulated by Webb [1988] and is the only
PEC analysis advanced to date for two-phase heat transfer
2. Operating Characteristics of Two-phase Heat Exchangers

A "two-phase heat exchanger" is defined here as one for which at least one of the
fluids undergoes a phase change. The heat exchangers of interest here are vaporizers
(evaporators, boilers, and reboilers) and condensers. Use of two-phase heat
exchangers include three general application areas:

1. Work-producing systems, such as a Rankine power cycle

2. Work-consuming systems, such as a vapor compression refrigeration system or a

vacuum distillation process, which use a compressor to support the process
3. Heat-actuated systems, such as an absorption refrigeration cycle, or a distillation
process (as defined here, a turbine or compressor would not be in this system).

In two-phase flow, pressure drop causes a reduction of the saturation temperature,

causing reduced LMTD for fixed entering condenser temperature, or for fixed
leaving evaporator temperature. This is illustrated in Figure 1. Hence, the previously
proposed quantitative relations must be modified to account for the effect of two-
phase pressure drop on the LMTD.
The effect of a given pressure drop on the decrease of saturation temperature (ΔTsat)
depends on the value of dT/dp at the operating pressure. The Clausius-Clapeyron
equation may be employed to establish the magnitude of dT/dp

Figure 1 Illustration of the effect of two-phase pressure drop on the LMTD. (From Webb [1988]).
For single-phase flow in heat exchangers, the pump or fan power requirement (P) is
directly proportional to the fluid pressure drop for a fixed flow rate. This is why the
pumping power is included as an objective function (or constraint) in Table 4-1.
However, the same relationship between pumping power and pressure drop does not
exist for two-phase heat exchanger applications.
3. Enhancement In Two-phase Heat Exchange Systems

This section describes how enhanced heat transfer may be employed in the previously
defined work-producing, work-consuming, and heat-actuated systems.

3.1 Work-Consuming Systems

The purpose of a refrigeration cycle is to cool air, water, or a process fluid. Mechanical
power is consumed by the compressor, which "pumps" the evaporated refrigerant from
the evaporator pressure to the condenser pressure.

Performance improvements that may be affected by the use of enhanced surfaces are
as follows:
1. Reduced heat transfer surface area for fixed compressor power (P c).

2. Increased evaporator heat duty for fixed compressor lift (pressure difference
between condenser and evaporator).

3. Reduced compressor power for fixed evaporator heat duty. This would be
affected by reducing the LMTD of the evaporator and/or condenser. This would
increase the suction pressure to the compressor and reduce the inlet pressure to the
condenser.
For the first case, one would seek reduced surface area in the evaporator and
condenser for fixed compressor inlet and outlet conditions. The compressor power
is not influenced by pressure drop in either the evaporator or condenser. However,
pressure drop in either heat exchanger will reduce the LMTD, and reduce the net
improvement. Figure 5-2 illustrates a refrigeration cycle for this case, and shows the
effect of two-phase pressure drop on the LMTD.
Figure 5-2 Pressure vs. enthalpy diagram for a refrigeration cycle showing the effect of pressure drop on the
LMTD in each heat exchanger. (From Webb [1988].)
The second case would maintain constant heat transfer surface area and take
advantage of the increased UA to obtain increased heat duty. Again, pressure drop
would act to reduce the increase of evaporator heat duty. A larger compressor
capacity would be required, because the refrigerant flow rate would increase in
proportion to the heat transfer increase. The surface area is maintained constant for
the third case and the UA increase is employed to reduce the LMTD. This allows the
compressor lift to be reduced for the fixed evaporator heat duty.
A "vacuum distillation" process may occur at a sufficiently low temperature that a
refrigeration system is required to provide condenser coolant (an evaporating liquid)
at the required low condensing temperature. Use of an enhanced heat transfer
surface in the distillation reflux condenser may allow the compressor of the
refrigeration system to operate at a higher suction pressure, and thereby save
compressor power.
3.2 Work-Producing Systems

Next, consider the case of a Rankine power cycle. The boiler feed pump raises the

pressure of the working fluid from the condenser pressure to the boiler pressure.

this pumping power is calculated by

(5-1)

The pressure drop in the boiler is negligible compared to the pressure difference
between the boiler and the condenser (Pp - Pc). Hence, the mechanical energy
consumed by frictional pressure drop in the boiler is of negligible concern.
However, pressure drop in the boiler or condenser will decrease the thermodynamic
efficiency of the power cycle, because of the effect of dT/dp on the LMTD.
Performance improvements that may be affected by the use of enhanced surfaces
are twofold:

1- Reduced boiler and/or condenser surface area for constant turbine output (Pt).

2- Increased turbine output for fixed boiler heat input, or fixed condenser heat
rejection. This would increase the boiler pressure or reduce the condensing
temperature.
The first case maintains fixed boiler exit pressure and/or fixed condenser inlet
pressure. Increased pressure drop in either heat exchanger will reduce the LMTD,
and hence reduce the performance improvement.

The second case maintains constant heat transfer surface area, and it employs the
increased UA to allow reduction of the LMTD. If the LMTD in the condenser is
reduced, the turbine can expand to a lower back pressure and produce more work. It
is unlikely that the LMTD reduction in the boiler would have a significant effect on
the turbine power output.
3.3 Heat-Actuated Systems

These systems may have a pump to transport liquids, but they do not use
compressors or turbines in the process operations. A good example of a heat-
actuated system is the absorption refrigeration cycle. This cycle has four heat
exchangers that involve condensation or boiling processes (evaporator, concentrator,
condenser, and absorber). A pump is used to transport the working fluid between the
absorber and the concentrator, but a compressor is not employed. In the LiBr-water
absorption cycle, water is the refrigerant.
Heat, in the form of steam or combustion products, is added in the concentrator to
boil off water and concentrate the LiBr-water solution. If the LMTD in any of the
four heat exchangers can be reduced, the thermodynamic irreversibility of the heat
exchanger processes will be reduced.

A third example is distillation processes, in which heat rejection occurs to cooling

water. Heat, in the form of steam, is added to a reboiler and heat is rejected in a
water-cooled condenser. Enhanced surfaces may be employed for the same purposes
as in the first examples. Mechanical energy (e.g., compressors or turbines) is not
used in the above examples.
Performance improvements may be affected by use of enhanced surfaces for three
different purposes:

l. Reduced heat transfer surface area for fixed operating temperatures

2. Increased heat exchange capacity for fixed amount of heat exchange surface area

3. Reduced LMTD for fixed amount of heat exchange surface area, which will
increase the thermodynamic efficiency of the process or cycle
Pressure drop of either two-phase stream will act to reduce the LMTD. The smaller
LMTD will decrease the surface area reduction possible, or will decrease the
efficiency improvement. The above discussion shows that the different operating
conditions of two-phase exchangers used in refrigeration and power cycles establish
a need for a different set of PEC than those for single-phase flow. There are three
basic differences:

l. The LMTD is affected by the two-phase pressure drop.

2. The mechanical power of interest in work-producing/consuming cycles is not a
pump or fan; rather it is a turbine or compressor. The power consumed by the
circulation pump of a power cycle is negligible compared to that produced by the
turbine. Hence, the effect of the heat exchanger performance on the work produced
by the turbine or on the work input to the compressor is the key point of concern.

3. In heat-actuated systems, the heat exchanger size or the thermodynamic

efficiency of the system is influenced by the LMTD in the heat exchangers. Hence,
the effect of the two-phase fluid pressure drop on the LMTD is the point of concern.
4. PEC For Two-phase Heat Exchange Systems

Having defined the performance improvements that may be affected in two-phase

heat exchange systems, it is now possible to prepare a table similar to Table 4-1.
Table 5-1 shows PEC corresponding to the FG, FN, and VG cases for the previously
discussed two-phase heat exchanger applications. Table 5-1 is laid out using the
same cases as listed in Table 4-1. However there are several key differences
between Table 4-1 and Table 5-1:
1- The pumping power variable (P) of Table 4-1 is not used in Table 5-1. This is
replaced in work-consuming (or work-producing) systems by the variable Pw, which
means work performed by (or on) the system. For heat-actuated systems, one may
wish to constrain or reduce the pressure drop, because of its effect on the LMTD.
The variable Δp applies for heat-actuated systems.

2- The condensers and evaporators considered here are for complete evaporation or
condensation. In this case, the heat duty is given by q = WλΔx. Because Δx will be a
constant for the evaporator or condenser, q α W. Hence, W and q are not independent
variables, as they are treated in Table 4-1.
3- Several of the cases in Table 4-1 do not apply for the present considerations.
Hence, they do not appear in Table 5-1.

4- Because the variable Pw applies to work-producing or work-consuming systems

and Δp applies to heat-actuated systems, separate tables should apply to these two
system types. To avoid this complication, Table 5-1 is prepared using an asterisk
code (*) to differentiate between the two system types.

Table 5-1 is equally applicable for vaporization or condensation inside tubes, or on

the outside of tubes in a bundle.
5. PEC Calculation Method

An algebraic calculation must be performed to determine the value of the objective

function for the case of interest in Table 5-1. Before any PEC calculations can be
made, it is necessary to know the heat transfer coefficient and friction factor or Δp
characteristics) of the enhanced tube as a function of the flow and geometry
conditions.
Table 5-1 Performance Evaluation Criteria for Two-Phase Heat Exchange System
The heat transfer and friction characteristics for vaporization or condensation on
enhanced surfaces depend on the following variables:

1. Geometry: The tube diameter and the specific geometric features of the enhanced
surface

2. The operating pressure (or saturation temperature)

3. The mass velocity (G), the vapor quality (x), and the heat flux (q) or the wall-to-

fluid temperature difference (Tw - Ts).

The data may be measured as a function of the local vapor quality, or as average
values over a given inlet and exit vapor quality. Jensen [1988] provides a review of
correlations for forced convection vaporization and condensation inside tubes (plain
and enhanced). Webb and Gupte [1992] provide a more recent review for forced
convection vaporization inside tubes and across tube bundles.
PEC Example 1

Consider Case FN-2 for a refrigeration evaporator with tube-side vaporization.

Assume that an evaporator design for vaporization in smooth tubes has been
completed. Figure 5-3 illustrates the operating conditions for the smooth-tube
design. Air enters the evaporator at flow rate W a1 and Ta1 and is cooled to Ta2. The

total heat duty of the evaporator is Qtot Assume that the plain tube design has N

refrigerant circuits in parallel. The heat duty per circuit is given by Qc = Qtot/N and

the refrigerant mass flow rate per circuit is given by Wrc = Wr/Nr.
The refrigerant mass velocity is given by G = Wrc/Ac where Ac is the flow cross
section area for the circuit.

Figure 5-3 Illustration of operating conditions for an air-cooled refrigerant evaporator with tube side vaoonzauou.
(From Webb [1988]).
The enhanced tube design operates at the conditions shown on Figure 5-3, except
for the entering refrigerant temperature (T r1), which is a dependent variable. The
objective is to reduce the evaporator size (circuit length) for fixed compressor
suction pressure, which fixes Tr2. It is assumed that the frontal area of the finned
tube heat exchanger is held constant, and that the evaporator length reduction is
accomplished By removing tube rows in the airflow direction. If the pressure drop
in the enhanced evaporator tube is greater than that of the plain tube, the LMTD will
be reduced, as is qualitatively illustrated by the dashed line of Figure 5-3.
The evaporator is designed to operate between entering vapor quality x1 and 1.0 exit
vapor quality. Assume that a correlation exists to calculate the "circuit average"
refrigerant heat transfer coefficient (hi) at the given operating pressure. This is given
by

(5-2)

Similarly, the pressure gradient is assumed to be known in the form

(5-3)
The PEC calculation proceeds as follows:

1- Guess the required circuit length and calculate the circuit averaged heat flux

from the required heat load (Qc) as:

(5-4)

2. Calculate the refrigerant-side h and Δp using the known refrigerant mass velocity
(G), heat flux (q), and the assumed circuit length (L) using Equations 5-2 and 5-3.

3. Calculate the UA value of the enhanced tube exchanger from

(5-5)
4. From the calculated refrigerant pressure drop, calculate the entering refrigerant
temperature (Tr1). Then calculate the LMTD for the heat exchanger.

5. Calculate the "available heat transfer rate" (Qav) by

(5-6)

6. If Qav > Qc (the required value), one assumes a shorter circuit length and repeats

steps 1 through 5. The procedure is repeated until Qav = Qc . The material savings

offered by the enhanced surface are L/LP, where LP is the evaporator circuit length
of the plain tube design.
It is possible that the enhanced tube design would provide better performance
characteristics if it were designed to operate at a different flow rate per circuit than
used for the plain tube design. This question must be resolved by performing a
parametric study of the enhanced tube design as a function of the number of
circuits. This calculation procedure would follow the previously outlined steps.
Refs.

1- Advances in Heat Transfer Enhancement, by Sujoy Kumar Saha, Manvendra

Tiwari, Bengt Sundén and Zan Wu. DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-29480-3. 2016

2- Handbook of heat transfer, by W.M. Rohsenow and J.P. Hartnett, Y.I. Cho. m 3rd
ed. 1998