MCE 203: ENGINEERING MATERIALS

(3 Units)
Module-3

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria

BY: DR. A.T. OYELAMI

Mechanical Properties
• The elastic modulus (units: GPa or GN/m2) is defined as the slope of
the linear-elastic part of the stress–strain curve (Figure 2).
• Young’s modulus, E, describes response to tensile or compressive loading,
• Shear modulus, G, describes shear loading and
• Bulk modulus, K, describes how resistant a substance is to compression.
• Poisson’s ratio, υ, is dimensionless: it is the negative of the ratio of the lateral
strain, ε2, to the axial strain, ε1, in axial loading:
 Stress-Strain Graphs for different
Materials

Figure 2: The stress–strain curve for a metal, Figure 4: Stress– strain curves for a ceramic in
Figure 3: Stress–strain curves for a polymer,
showing the modulus, E, the 0.2 percent yield tension and in compression. The compressive strength
below, at and above its glass transition
strength, σY, and the ultimate strength, σu. σc is 10 to 15 times greater than the tensile strength σt.
temperature, Tg.

In an isotropic material, the moduli are related in the following ways:

Where υ ≈ 1/3; G ≈ 3E/8 and K ≈ E

Thermal properties
• Two temperatures, the melting temperature, Tm, and the glass temperature, T g (units for both: K or
C) are fundamental because they relate directly to the strength of the bonds in the solid.
• Crystalline solids have a sharp melting point, Tm. Non-crystalline solids do not;
• The temperature Tg characterizes the transition from true solid to very viscous liquid.
• Other important temperatures: the maximum and minimum service temperatures T max and Tmin
(both: K or C).
• The first tells us the highest temperature at which the material can reasonably be used without
oxidation, chemical change, or excessive creep becoming a problem.
• The second is the temperature below which the material becomes brittle or otherwise unsafe
to use.
Thermal properties (Cont’d)
• The rate at which heat is conducted through a solid at steady state is measured by the thermal
conductivity, l (units: W/m.K). The conductivity is calculated from Fourier’s law:

Figure 5: The thermal conductivity λ measures the Figure 6: linear-thermal expansion coefficient a measures
flux of heat driven by a temperature gradient dT/dX. the change in length, per unit length, when the sample is
heated.
Electrical properties
• The electrical resistivity, ρe (SI units Ω.m, but commonly reported in units of µU.cm) is the
resistance of a unit cube with unit potential difference between a pair of its faces.

Figure 7: Electrical resistivity is measured as the potential

gradient ΔV/X divided by the current density, τ/A.
Optical properties
• All materials allow some passage of light, although for metals it is
exceedingly small.
• The speed of light when in the material, υ, is always less than that in
vacuum, c.
• A consequence is that a beam of light striking the surface of such a
material at an angle α, the angle of incidence, enters the material at an
angle β, the angle of refraction.
• The refractive index, n (dimensionless), is
• -------------------------------------- (6)
Eco properties
• The contained or production energy (units MJ/kg) is the energy
required to extract 1 kg of a material from its ores and feedstocks.
• The associated CO2 production (units: kg/kg) is the mass of carbon
dioxide released into the atmosphere during the production of 1 kg of
material.
• Eco-materials are defined as those materials that enhance the
environmental improvement throughout the whole life cycle
STRUCTURE OF SOLIDS
• “Structure” of a material usually relates to the arrangement of its internal components.
• Subatomic structure involves electrons within the individual atoms and interactions with their
nuclei.
• On an atomic level, structure encompasses the organization of atoms or molecules relative to one
another.
• The next larger structural realm, which contains large groups of atoms that are normally
agglomerated together, is termed “microscopic,” meaning that which is subject to direct
observation using some type of microscope.
• Finally, structural elements that may be viewed with the naked eye are termed “macroscopic.”
Structure-Property Relationship
Atomic Structure
• One early outgrowth of quantum mechanics was the simplified Bohr atomic model, in which
electrons are assumed to revolve around the atomic nucleus in discrete orbitals, and the position of
any particular electron is more or less well defined in terms of its orbital.
• This model of the atom is represented in Figure 10.

Figure 10: Schematic representation of the Bohr atom

Atomic bonding in materials

Figure 11: (a) Variation of the repulsive force, attractive

force, and net force between two isolated atoms as a
function of the interatomic separation, and (b) variation of
the repulsive, attractive, and net potential energies as a
function of the interatomic separation.
Bohr Theory
• An atom in the excited state will return to the ground state and give off its excess energy as light in
the process.
• In returning to the ground state, the energy may be emitted all at once, or it may be emitted in a
stepwise manner (but not continuously) as the electron drops from a higher allowed orbit to
allowed orbits of lower and lower energy.
• Since each orbit corresponds to a definite energy level, the energy of the light emitted will
correspond to the definite differences in energy between levels.
• Therefore, the light emitted as the atom returns to its ground state will have a definite energy or a
definite set of energies (Figure 12).
• The discrete amounts of energy emitted or absorbed by an atom or molecule are called quanta
(singular, quantum). A quantum of light energy is called a photon.
Bohr Theory (Cont’d)

Figure 11: Visible Spectrum of Hydrogen

Figure 12: Possible return paths for electron in orbit 4

4 →1 4→ 2 →1 4→ 3 → 2 →1 4→ 3 → 1
Only electron transitions down to the second orbit cause emission of
visible light. Other transitions may involve infrared or ultraviolet light.