Systematics &

Phylogeny
Ch. 19
Phylogenetic Tree of the Chordates
 Evolution of Amniotes

3 lineages – mammals; turtles; all other reptiles

 Deuterostomia
Deuterostome
development Chordates
Common ancestor

Bilateral symmetry, Echinoderms

3 tissue layers,
body cavity moulting

Ecdysozoa
Arthropods

Roundworms

Bilateria
tissues

Protostomia
Annelids
trochophore

Lophotrochozoa
Molluscs

Protostome Flatworms
development

lophophore Rotifers
multicellularity
Choanoflagellate

Lophophores
ancestor

Comb jellies

Radiata
Radial symmetry Cnidarians
2 tissue layers

Sponges
 Flowers, double fertilization, endosperm, fruit

Seeds
Flowering plants

Seed
Common ancestor
Megaphylls
Gymnosperms

Vascular
Vascular tissue Ferns & allies

Seedless
Apical growth
Microphylls

Lycophytes

Mosses

Nonvascular
Bryophytes
Embryo protected

Hornworts
Common
green algal
ancestor
Liverworts

Charophytes

550 500 450 400 350 300 250 Present

Million Years Ago
 Tracing Phylogeny
 Relies on:
 Fossil records

 Developmental data

 Behavioral data

 Molecular

 Morphological data

 Homology

 Similar features that stem from a common

ancestor (phylogeny – primitive characters)
 Homologous structures are related to each
other through common descent
 Homology:
Comparative
Anatomy

 Comparing
anatomical similarities

 Common ancestral
characters

EXAMPLE: Forelimbs of vertebrates contain same bones organized just as

they were in a common ancestor, despite adaptation to the environment
 Homology –
embryological
comparisons
 Tracing Phylogeny
 Analogy

 Similarity(in features) due to

convergence

 Convergence evolution: occurs when

distantly related species have a
structure that looks the same only
because of adaptation to the same
environment

 E.g. Wings of an insect and bat

 same function but no common ancestry
 Systematics & Phylogeny
 Convergent Evolution

 Acquisition of a feature in distantly related lines of

descent

 The feature is not present in a common ancestor

 Parallel Evolution

 The acquisition of a feature in two or more related

lineages

 The feature is not present in a common ancestor

 E.g. similar banding pattern in several moth sp.

 Convergent Evolution
EXAMPLE: Cacti and spurges are both adapted to hot, dry
environments. Both are thick & fleshy with spiny leaves. However
details of flower indicate not closely related.
 Classification Systems
 Aristotle to mid 20th century, biologists
recognized only 2 kingdoms (mobility / motility)

 Plantae (plants)

 Animalia (animals)

 Protista (protists) were added as 3rd kingdom

(1880s) (unicellular & microscopic)

 Whittaker (1969) expanded to 5 kingdoms by

adding Fungi and Monera (bacteria)
 Type of cell (prokaryotic/eukaryotic)
 Complexity (unicellular/multicellular)
 Nutrition (photosynthetic/ heterotrophic)
Five Kingdom System
 Three Domain System
 Carl Woese (1970): Bacteria and Archaea are so
different = assigned to different domains

 Monera split into Domain Bacteria & Domain

Archaea

 Domains: Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya

 Bacteria & Archaea:

 Similar in that both are asexually reproducing
unicellular prokaryotes

 Distinguishable by:
 Difference in rRNA base sequences
 Plasma membrane chemistry
 Cell wall chemistry
 Three Domain System
 Domain Eukarya

 Unicellular and multicellular organisms

 Cells with a membrane-bounded nucleus
 Various organelles (endosymbiosis)
 Sexual reproduction common
 Various types of life cycles

 Contains four kingdoms

 Kingdom Protista

 Kingdom Fungi

 Kingdom Plantae

 Kingdom Animalia
The Three-Domain System of Classification
 Archaea now thought to be more closely related to
Eukarya than to Bacteria
 Share some of the same ribosomal proteins
 Similar tRNA, initiate transcription the same
 Viruses,
Bacteria
& Archaea
Ch. 20
Viruses (unseen “dead” parasites)
 Viruses (poison) are non-cellular & non-living

 Associated with plants, animals, human

diseases

 E.g. polio, rabies, AIDS, measles,

chickenpox, mumps

 Viral diseases – cold 2/3 times per year

 Smaller than bacteria therefore best studied

– electron microscopy

 Vary in shape (10 – 400 nm)

 Virus Structure

All possess same basic structure:

 Capsid: Outer layer composed of protein

subunits
 Some enveloped by membrane (from
host - beneficial)
 Others “naked”

 Inner core
 Nucleic acid (DNA or RNA)
 Various proteins (enzymes)