Social and Cultural Dimensions of

Development
Development as a social evolution

● The social evolutionary ideas which form part of Rostow’s model have a basis in the
nineteenth-century theories about social change based on the capitalist experience in
Western Europe.
● Many social theorists drew on Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution to examine and
explain the shifting patterns of social organization.
● Just as biological organisms become increasingly complex through processes of
competition and natural selection, so, such theorists suggested, did societies. This
approach, which was termed ‘naturalism’ conceived of societies as being like
organisms.
● Societies which were best able to adapt to environmental and other conditions, became
‘winners’, and those which did not were doomed to remain ‘traditional’.
● Theories were used to justify colonial expansion through which dominant groups were
able to impose their will on those societies which had been ‘less successful’.
● Durkheim adopted the ideas of natural systems in assuming that harmony and
equilibrium were constantly striven for.
● Talcott Parsons understandings of society were very technocratic, in that he saw the
harmony and continued flourishing of society to be ensured through appropriate
institutions.
Weber, rationality and the Protestant ethics

● Humans are viewed as other animals, acting purely on instinct (in the case of
naturalism), or subsumed within the operation of wider society (as in structural
functionalism)
● Rather than relying on ‘superstition’ or ‘tradition’ in making decisions, individuals would
base their choices on logical analyses of the situation.
● This individualism and the work ethic associated with the requirement to delay personal
rewards led to rapid economic growth was explained by Weber.
● Weber did not claim to provide a universal explanation for capitalist economic
development, choosing instead to consider the nature of German society in the
nineteenth century.
Ethnodevelopment
Björn Hettne (1996) Modernization theory and Marxist, regards cultural practices as an
obstacle to development.

-they are considered to represent non-rational, collective, traditional ways of life, unsuited to
individualistic capitalist development

-viewed as ‘pre-modern’ and a barrier to development because of the perceived irrationality

of allegiance to an ethnic group, rather than a class grouping.

Rodolfo Stavenhagen (1986) used the term ‘ethnodevelopment’ to describe development

which takes into account the need to maintain ethnic diversity as development takes place.
Four aspects of ethnodevelopment
● Territorialism: the spatial concentration of ethnic groups, such that decisions about
‘development’ are made within a particular territory based on the resources of that
particular area.
● Internal Self-determination: the ability for a particular ethnic group to control
collectively its destiny within the context of a nation-state.
● Cultural Pluralism: the existence of and mutual respect for a number of cultures within
one society.
● Ecological Sustainability: development should progress with no significant
destruction of the natural environment which would threaten future livelihoods
Governments and indigenous communities have utilized the growth of 'sustainable tourism' or
'ecotourism' to establish income-generating options over which group members have control that
do not involve the destruction of indigenous traditional traditions.

Heather Zeppel (1998), ‘indigenous tourism’ the ‘host community’ of indigenous peoples is able
to set limits on what is done, how it is done and when it is done.
Examples
● The Zuni Indians of New Mexico, USA limit tourist access during particular
religious ceremonies, such as the summer rain dances (Mallari and Enote
1996, in Zeppel 1998),
● The Aboriginal groups in the Northern Territories of Australia encourage
tourists not to climb Uluru (also known as Ayers Rock) because of its sacred
significance.
Religion and Development
● Since the beginning of the twenty-first century, the role of religion in development has
received increased attention, particularly in relation to development practice.
● It was viewed as an obstacle to progress and modernization, and as a set of beliefs and
practices that would disappear over time.
● Religion and devvelopment focuses on how the moral and ethical resources of the
world’s major faith traditions such as Christianity, Judaism, Hinduism, Islam, and
Buddhism might tame the worst excesses of market civilization.
● In 1972, King Jigme Singye Wangchuck of Bhutan suggested and adopted
the concept of Gross National Happiness (GNH) which is based on the
buddhist principles.
● It encompasses the desire to improve living standards through modernization,
without destroying the environment or viewing people purely as economic
actors.
● At a sub-national level, faith-based organizations (FBOs) or faith based
development organizations (FBDOS) have increasingly been the object of
research and policy attention.
● These organizations work effectively with local populations for whom faith is a
key element of their lives
● Some organizations have missionary goals, which may also involve restricting
services to members of that faith and denigrating non-believers and followers
of other religions.
Gender and Development
- As economic growth took place, the benefits of such development would
trickle down to benefit all sectors of society.
- Failed to recognize social structures that created and exacerbated inequalities
which blocked trickle down effect.
- Gender : the result of socially constructed ideas about the behavior, actions,
and roles a particular sex performs.
Ester Boserup
- One of the first people to talk about how women were differently affected from
men through modernization as a development approach
- women : domestic and reproductive sphere of childcare and household
- Men: non- domestic activities
- As society and economies moved from rural to urban, women were excluded.
Approaches to Gender and Development by Caroline Moser

1. Welfare

- 1950s onwards

- targeted women in their domestic role

- women viewed as passive

- Projects addressed women’s practical gender needs such as food, aid,

health and nutrition advice
Approaches to Gender and Development by Caroline Moser

2. Equity
- 1970s
- Prompted by the UN decade for Women
- Aimed to address strategic gender needs by eradicating obstacles to women’s
advancement in public sphere
- Strong emphasis on legislative changes

3. Anti-poverty
- 1970s
- Women’s low status interpreted as being caused by income poverty
- Focuses on income generating opportunities for women
- Fails to address patriarchy as a structure of oppression
Approaches to Gender and Development by Caroline Moser

4. Efficiency
- 1980s onwards
- Focuses women as a channel of development
- Women’s paid work and domestic work intensified

5. Empowerment
- 1990s onwards
- Aims to lead to significant shifts in gender relations
- Original focus on projects devised and run by groups of women from the south
- Approach increasingly adopted by Northern organizations
- Increased focus on incorporating men into gender and development projects
Communists with gender
- According to Engels, as societies move from pre-capitalist to capitalist forms a
gender division of labour becomes more apparent.
- Engles argues that capitalism and patriarchy are highly intertwined
- “Reproduction of the labour force”
- In Order to achieve gender equality, capitalism should be replaced.
Rights based Development
-The achievement of human rights in themselves are an objective of development.(Maxwell)

Rights are often divided into

Civil and political rights-Right to vote,Freedom of expression

Economic,social and cultural rights-Right to food,shelter,education,social security.

-Due to the range of problem with implementation,it could be argued that there is a hierarchy of rights
where some rights are being more important than others.

-So there is chance of raise of question,Is freedom of expression really that important when people
do not have enough food to live?

-A rights based approach argue for a holistic, people-centred approach rather than prioritizing
particular rights.
-Different groups have increasingly drawn on discourse of right to make claims for
the kind of development they want to occur.

Rights based on disability:

As 600 million people in globe are living with disability,it is an outcome of poverty.

-People with disabilities are disproportionately found among the economically

poor,according to DFID.

-For eg.Disabilities caused by malnutrition or infectious diseases, and also a

cause of poverty.

-People with disability are deprived from education,employment,and other facility.

-Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) came into force by
UN in 2008
Sexual Rights:

-The concept of ‘sexual rights’ recognizes how sexual behaviour may be policed
by the state, by religious institutions or dominant groups in society.

-As a part of rights-based development agenda,NGOs and other related

organizations focused on working with communities to explain them concept of
rights and lobbying for their rights.

-The role of state as a guarantor of these right is crucial.Because state is a

guardian and policy making and monitoring body.

-The focus on rights may be regarded as important for promoting opportunities for
greater well-being and empowerment
Life Stage

Children and young People:

-To empower the children around the world,Save the Children Fund was set up in 1919 and UNICEF, the
United Nations Children’s Fund, was set up in 1946.

-Both these organizations were set up to help children in post-war Europe, but

now work throughout the world.

-The issue of child labour is a particularly complicated one in development policies.

-ILO estimated that there were 190.7 million children between 5 and 14 working in the Global South.Involved
in a hazardous work that is threatening to physical and mental health, safety and moral development.

-In 1989 the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) was adopted to prevent performing any
workthat is likely to be hazardous or to interfere with the child’s education, or be harmful to the child’s health
or physical, mental,spiritual, moral or social development.
Older People:

-Large older population around the globe are viewed as being too old to participate in
work activities which clearly ignores the significant contributions made by people
over 60.

-Older people often experience higher levels of poverty than younger

people, due to retirement or reduced ability to undertake paid work.

-The role of older people in caring for grandchildren and others is also key and can
help promote feelings of usefulness and status.It is also important that their opinions
are considered in development policy.

-In April 2002 the Second World Assembly on Ageing,held in Madrid and agreed a
16,000 word ‘Plan of Action on Ageing’.But the participation of older people in
monitoring the MIPAA was very low.
THANK YOU