Methods of AC

Analysis
MODULE 5
ELEC32E
engr.alvingloraez,msece
Topics
• Dependent Sources
• Source Conversion
• Mesh (Loop) Analysis
• Nodal Analysis
• Delta-Wye and Wye-Delta Conversions
• Bridge Networks
Objectives
• convert an ac voltage source into its equivalent current source, and
conversely,
• convert a current source into an equivalent voltage source,
• solve for the current or voltage in a circuit having either a dependent
current source or a dependent voltage source,
• set up simultaneous linear equations to solve an ac circuit using mesh
analysis,
• use complex determinants to find the solutions for a given set of linear
equations,
• set up simultaneous linear equations to solve an ac circuit using nodal
analysis,
• perform delta-to-wye and wye-to-delta conversions for circuits having
reactive
• elements,
• solve for the balanced condition in a given ac bridge circuit.
• in particular, you will examine the Maxwell, Hay, and Schering bridges
Dependent Sources

SUCCESS IS DEPENDENT
ON EFFORT.
SOPHOCLES
Dependent Sources

Definition
Independent sources, meaning that the voltage or current
of the supply is not in any way dependent upon any
voltage or current elsewhere in the circuit.
Dependent sources are models often use voltage and
current sources which have values dependent upon some
internal voltage or current.

Why use dependent sources?

Because it is possible to explain the operation of the circuits
by replacing the device with an equivalent electronic model
( e.g amplifiers using transistors)
Dependent Sources

Definition
The diamond is the accepted symbol for representing
dependent sources, many articles and textbooks still use a
circle.
In this lecture , we use both forms of the dependent source
to familiarize the student with the various notations.
Dependent Sources

Definition
The dependent source has a magnitude and phase angle
determined by voltage or current at some internal element
multiplied by a constant, k.
The magnitude of the constant is determined by parameters
within the particular model, and the units of the constant
correspond to the required quantities in the equation.
Dependent Sources

Direction
Dependent Sources

Constants
While the BJT had an amplification factor β (beta), the FET has
a transconductance factor, gm.
Dependent Sources

Constants
Transconductance factor For an FET, the ratio of the change in
drain current to the change in gate voltage that induced it;
symbol, gm; unit, siemen.
ohms
Two models for small signal
analysis in Transistors:
unitless

1. re model
2. hybrid model ohms

The subscript e of re was chosen to

unitless
emphasize that it is the dc level of emitter
current that determines the ac level of the
resistance of the diode.
Dependent Sources

Constants
Dependent Sources

SP01
Dependent Sources

SP01 Solution
Dependent Sources

SP02
Dependent Sources

SP02 Solution
Dependent Sources

SP03
Dependent Sources

SP04
Dependent Sources

Assignment
Source Conversion
Prayer is more than meditation. In meditation, the
source of strength is one's self. When one prays,
he goes to a SOURCE of strength greater than his
own.
Madame de Stael
Source Conversion

Definition
When working with dc circuits, the analysis of a circuit is
often simplified by replacing the source (whether a voltage
source or a current source) with its equivalent.
The conversion of any ac source is similar to the method
used in dc circuit analysis.
Source Conversion

Definition
A voltage source E in series with an impedance Z is equivalent
to a current source I having the same impedance Z in parallel.
Figure 19–4 shows the equivalent sources.
Source Conversion

Definition
From Ohm’s law, we perform the source conversion as
follows:
Source Conversion

Definition
It is important to realize that the two circuits of Figure 19–4 are
equivalent between points a and b.
This means that any network connected to points a and b will
behave exactly the same regardless of which type of source is
used.
Source Conversion

SP01
Source Conversion

SP01 Solution
Source Conversion

SP02
Source Conversion

SP02 Solution
Source Conversion

SP02 Solution
Source Conversion

Definition
However, the voltages or currents within the sources will
seldom be the same.
In order to determine the current through or the voltage
across the source impedance, the circuit must be returned
to its original state.
Source Conversion

Definition
It is possible to use the same procedure to convert a
dependent source into its equivalent provided that the
controlling element is external to the circuit in which the
source appears.
If the controlling element is in the same circuit as the
dependent source, this procedure cannot be used.
Source Conversion

SP03
Source Conversion

SP03 Solution
In the circuit of Figure 19–9 the controlling element, R1, is
in a separate circuit. Therefore, the current source is
converted into an equivalent voltage source as follows:
Source Conversion

SP03 Solution
The resulting voltage source is shown in Figure 19–10.
Notice that the equivalent voltage source is dependent on
the current, I, just as the original current
• source.
Source Conversion

SP04
Convert the voltage sources of Figure 19–11 into equivalent
current sources.
Source Conversion

SP04 Solution
Source Conversion

SP04 Solution
Source Conversion

Assignment
Convert the current source into an equivalent voltage source
and solve for V.
MESH (LOOP) Analysis

I think it's very important to have a feedback LOOP,

where you're constantly thinking about what
you've done and how you could be doing it better.
Elon Musk
Mesh Analysis

Steps in Loop Analysis

Mesh analysis allows us to determine each loop current within a
circuit, regardless of the number of sources within the circuit.
The following steps provide a format which simplifies the process of
using mesh analysis:
Mesh Analysis

Steps in Loop Analysis

Mesh Analysis

Step 01
Convert all sinusoidal expressions into equivalent phasor
notation. Where necessary, convert current sources into
equivalent voltage sources.
Mesh Analysis

Step 02
Redraw the given circuit, simplifying the given impedances
wherever possible and labelling the impedances (Z1, Z2,
etc.).
Mesh Analysis

Step 03
Arbitrarily assign clockwise loop currents to each interior
closed loop within a circuit.
Show the polarities of all impedances using the assumed
current directions. If an impedance is common to two
loops, it may be thought to have two simultaneous
currents.
Although in fact two currents will not occur
simultaneously, this maneuver makes the algebraic
calculations fairly simple.
The actual current through a common impedance is the
vector sum of the individual loop currents.
Mesh Analysis

Step 03
Mesh Analysis

Step 04
Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law to each closed loop in the circuit,
writing each equation as follows:

If the current directions are originally assigned in a clockwise

direction, then the resulting linear equations may be simplified
to the following format:
Mesh Analysis

Step 04
Mesh Analysis

Step 04
Mesh Analysis

Step 05
Solve the resulting simultaneous linear equations
using substitution or determinants.
Mesh Analysis

Step 05
Mesh Analysis

SP01
Mesh Analysis

SP01 Solution
Mesh Analysis

SP01 Solution
Mesh Analysis

SP01 Solution
Mesh Analysis

SP01 Solution
Mesh Analysis

SP01 Solution
Mesh Analysis

SP01 Solution
Mesh Analysis

SP01 Solution
Mesh Analysis

SP02
Mesh Analysis

SP02 Solution
Mesh Analysis

SP02 Solution
Mesh Analysis

SP02 Solution
Mesh Analysis

Seatwork
Mesh Analysis

Assignment
Solve for I and V
Next Topics (2.11.13)
• Nodal Analysis
• Delta-Wye and Wye-Delta Conversions
• Bridge Networks
NODAL ANALYSIS
Nodal Analysis

Steps in Nodal Analysis

Nodal analysis allows us to calculate all node voltages with
respect to an arbitrary reference point in a circuit.
The following steps provide a simple format to apply nodal
analysis.
Use nodal analysis to determine the voltage V for the circuit of Figure
19–23.
Nodal Analysis

Step 1
Convert all sinusoidal expressions into equivalent
phasor notation. If necessary, convert voltage
sources into equivalent current sources.
Nodal Analysis

Step 2
Redraw the given circuit, simplifying the given
impedances wherever possible and relabelling
the impedances as admittances (Y1, Y2, etc.).
Nodal Analysis

Step 3
Select and label an appropriate reference node. Arbitrarily
assign subscripted voltages (V1, V2, etc.) to each of the
remaining n nodes within the circuit.
Nodal Analysis

Step 4
Indicate assumed current directions through all admittances in
the circuit.
If an admittance is common to two nodes, it is considered in
each of the two node equations.
Nodal Analysis

Step 5
Nodal Analysis

Step 5
Nodal Analysis

Step 5
Nodal Analysis

Step 5
Nodal Analysis

Step 6
Solve the resulting simultaneous linear equations using
substitution or determinants.
Nodal Analysis

Step 6
Nodal Analysis

Step 6
Nodal Analysis

SP01
Nodal Analysis

SP01 Solution

The circuit as it appears after the source conversion.

Notice that the direction of the current source is downward
to correspond with the polarity of the voltage source V4
Nodal Analysis

SP01 Solution
Nodal Analysis

SP01 Solution
Now, by labelling the nodes and admittances, the circuit may be
simplified as shown in Figure 19–28.
Nodal Analysis
Nodal Analysis
Nodal Analysis

SP01 Solution
Nodal Analysis

Assignment
Delta-to-Wye and Wye-
to-Delta Conversions
Δ – Y and Y – Δ Conversions

Intro
Terms: “delta” (or “pi”) “wye” (or “tee”)
Δ – Y and Y – Δ Conversions

Δ–Y
A Δ configuration is converted to a
Y equivalent by using the following:
Δ – Y and Y – Δ Conversions

Y–Δ
A Y configuration is converted to a Δ
equivalent by using the following:
Δ – Y and Y – Δ Conversions

SP01
Δ – Y and Y – Δ Conversions

SP01 Solution
Δ – Y and Y – Δ Conversions

SP01

the Y circuit cannot actually

be constructed from real
components since negative resistors
do not exist.
Treat the impedance Z1 = - 3 - j3
as if the resistance actually were a
negative value.
Δ – Y and Y – Δ Conversions

SP02
Δ – Y and Y – Δ Conversions

SP02 Solution
Convert the Y – Δ
Δ – Y and Y – Δ Conversions

SP02 Solution
Δ – Y and Y – Δ Conversions

SP02 Solution
Δ – Y and Y – Δ Conversions

SP03
SEATWORK
Bridge Networks
Bridge Networks

Introduction
Bridge circuits, similar to the network of Figure 19–36, are
used extensively in electronics to measure the values of
unknown components.
Bridge Networks

Introduction
Any bridge circuit is said to be balanced when the current
through the branch between the two arms is zero.
Bridge Networks

Introduction
In a practical circuit, component values of very precise
resistors are adjusted until the current through the central
element (usually a sensitive galvanometer) is exactly equal
to zero.
For ac circuits, the condition of a balanced bridge occurs
when the impedance vectors of the various arms satisfy
the following condition:
Bridge Networks

Introduction
When a balanced bridge occurs in a circuit, the equivalent
impedance of the bridge network is easily determined by
removing the central impedance and replacing it by either
an open or a short circuit.
The resulting impedance of the bridge circuit is then found
as either of the following:
Bridge Networks

Introduction
If, on the other hand, the bridge is not balanced, then the
total impedance must be determined by performing a Δ-
to-Y conversion.
Alternatively, the circuit may be analyzed by using either
mesh analysis or nodal analysis.
Bridge Networks

SP01
Bridge Networks

SP01 Solution (a)

Bridge Networks

SP01 Solution (b)

Bridge Networks

Maxwell Bridge
The Maxwell bridge, shown in Figure 19–38, is used to
determine the inductance and series resistance of an
inductor having a relatively large series resistance (in
comparison to XL = ωL).
Bridge Networks

Maxwell Bridge
Resistors R1 and R3 are adjusted to provide the balanced
condition (when the current through the galvanometer is
zero: IG = 0).
When the bridge is balanced, we know that the following
condition must apply:
Bridge Networks

Maxwell Bridge
By solving for the balanced bridge condition, we have the
following equations for the unknown quantities of the
circuit
Bridge Networks

SP02
Bridge Networks

SP02 Solution (a)

Rewriting Equations
Bridge Networks

SP02 Solution (b)

Bridge Networks

Hay Bridge
In order to measure the inductance and series resistance
of an inductor having a small series resistance, a Hay
bridge is generally used.
The Hay bridge is shown in Figure 19–40.
Bridge Networks

Hay Bridge
By solving for the balanced bridge condition, we have the
following equations for the unknown quantities of the
circuit
Bridge Networks

Schering Bridge
The Schering bridge, shown in Figure 19–41, is a circuit used to
determine the value of unknown capacitance.
Bridge Networks

Schering Bridge
By solving for the balanced bridge condition, we have the
following equations for the unknown quantities of the
circuit
Bridge Networks

SP03
Bridge Networks

SP03 Solution
Bridge Networks

SP04