Sour taste in lemons is caused by citric acid.

Acids can ‘burn’ holes in metals or clothing.

Acids can damage skin & cause blindness in the eye.
Rain containing acid can very slowly dissolve cement,
concrete & stone buildings. H2SO4 reacting with material

1
The Arrhenius model
1. Acids are regarded as substances that
liberate H+ ions when dissolved in water.
Hydrochloric acid: HCl → H+ + Cl-
Nitric acid: HNO3 → H+ + NO3-
Sulphuric acid: H2SO4 → 2H+ + SO42-
Phosphoric acid: H3PO4 → 3H+ + PO43-
Arrhenius acids and bases
2
2. Bases (Ahrrenius model) are regarded as
substances that form OH- ions when
dissolved in water.

Sodium hydroxide: NaOH → Na+ + OH-

Potassium hydroxide: KOH → K+ + OH-
Calcium hydroxide: Ca(OH)2 → Ca2+ + 2OH-

Although both acids, bases & water contain

covalent molecules, the molecules are polar in
nature & the acids & bases dissolve in water to
form new ions in solution.
3
Ahrrenius acid & base
 ∂+ ∂- _
H Cl Cl Cl-

H
+
H O H3O+
H O
H H Ionisation of acids

There is a polar covalent bond in the HCl molecule as

a result of the unequal sharing of the electron pair.
The bond in the HCl breaks and new Cl- and H3O+ ions
are formed.
4

These ions are then surrounded by the other water molecules.

When an acid reacts with a base there is an exchange of
ions:
H2SO4 + Ca(OH)2 → CaSO4 + 2H2O

Expressed slightly differently – showing the ions in

each solution:
2H+ + SO42- + Ca2+ + 2OH- → CaSO4 + 2H2O

The - & + pairs in the solutions swop & we form a

salt & water.
Ion exchange & other reactions
This called neutralisation. 5
 Besides the alkalis (metal hydroxides) there are many
other bases, such as metal oxides and metal
carbonates. Arrhenius vs Lowry-Bronsted acids & bases

We thus need a wider definition of acids & bases.

In the Lowry-Brønsted model, an acid is a proton donor

and a base is a proton acceptor.

This is the modern concept as to

what constitutes an acid and a base.
Lowry Bronsted acids & bases
6
 Acid: HCl → H+ + Cl-
Acid → proton + ion
Base: NH3 + H+ → NH4+
base + proton → ion
An acid is ∴any substance that can donate a
proton when reacting.
A base is any substance that receives a proton
when reacting.
The reaction between an acid and a base is the 7
donating and receiving of a proton.
The following reaction illustrates an acid-base reaction:
HCl + NH3 → Cl- + NH4+

Acid Base Complete the following equations

donating receiving & identify the acids, bases &
a proton a proton respective conjugates:
H2SO4 + CaCO3 →
NH3 + H2O →
HCn + NH3 →
8
HNO3 + NaOH →
An acid & a base that are related as a result of
a transfer of protons, is called a conjugate
acid –base pair. Conjugate acid base pairs

• an acid forms a conjugate base

• a base forms a conjugate acid.
Conjugate acid-base pair 1

HCl(aq) + H2O(l)  Cl-(aq) + H3O+(aq)

Acid 1 base 2 base 1 acid 2
9
Conjugate base-acid pair 2
10
Ampholytes are substances that can act as
either an acid or as a base, depending upon
what it is reacting with.
Water as an acid: H2O + NH3  NH4+ + OH-
Water as an base: HNO3 + H2O  H3O+ + NO3-
Other ampholytes: HSO4-, HCO3- & H2PO4-.
Now work out the 2 equations each of these
ampholytes - to illustrate how they react as
ampholytes. 11
Whenever we add an acid & a alkali we always
produce a salt & water.
We say the alkali has neutralised the acid – or vice-
versa. Neutralisation reaction

HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O

H2SO4 + Ca(OH)2 → CaSO4 + H2O
Acid + base → salt + water
In order to tell if the one has neutralised the other, we
need to use an indicator to see when there is a change
in colour. . 12
 An acid plus a alkali gives a salt and water
HCl + NaOH  NaCl + H2O.
An acid plus a metal oxide gives a salt and
water. HCl + Na2O  2NaCl + H2O
An acid plus a metal gives a salt and
hydrogen. 2HCl + Zn  ZnCl2 + H2
An acid plus a carbonate gives a salt, CO2
and water. 2HCl + Na2CO3  2NaCl + CO2 + H2O
Reactions of acids and bases 13
Indicators are organic dyes that have a particular
colour in an acid and a different colour in an alkali
(soluble base).
The indicator litmus is red in an acid and blue in an
alkali. This can be in a liquid or paper form.
Add litmus Indicators

HCl NaOH
14
Indicators Make an indicator
Name Colour Colour pH
of indicator acid base range

Methyl Orange Red Yellow 3-4

Bromothymol Blue Yellow Blue 6-8

Phenolphthalein Clear Red 8 - 10

Natural indicators can be
produced from red cabbage, red
lettuce, red flower petals, red
wine, red grape juice & diluted
15
beetroot juice.
Universal indicator – in liquid or paper form, is
able to change to a whole range of colours,
thus indicating the degree of acidity or
alkalinity. The closer to red – the more acidic.

Universal indicator

16
Many salts can be produced from acid base
reactions:
H2SO4 + Na2O  Na2SO4 + H2O
H2SO4 + CuO  CuSO4 + H2O
H2CO3 + Ca(OH)2  CaCO3 + 2H2O
If precipitates are formed – filter.
If ions remain in solution – evaporate
water off.
17
To establish whether an alkali has neutralised an
acid, add the indicator to the acid. Titration

Now slowly add the alkali – when the indicator

changes colour – you have neutralised the acid &
have thus added enough alkali.
Burette As soon as the indicator changes
colour you have added enough
alkali to just neutralise the acid.

Add alkali Adding more alkali just makes the

solution more alkaline & the
Acid with
indicator will go to a darker blue.
litmus 18

Energy is released in process.

Doing a titration 19
 milli-ammeter
mA
Pour different liquids into a beaker
and then connect up the electrical
Carbon
rods
circuit as in sketch.

Since all acids & alkalis contain ions, they will

conduct electricity & there should be a reading every
time you use an acid or an alkali.
However the ability to conduct an electric current will
differ quite a lot and depends upon the ability of the
substance to form ions in solution.
20
Conductivity of acids & bases