RESERVOIR PERFORMANCE

NOVEMBER 2023
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 DRIVE MECHANISM
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 RESERVOIR ENGINEERING
DRIVE MECHANISMS

DRIVE MECHANISMS
PRIMARY RECOVERY

2
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 OUTLIN
E

A.
Introduction
B. Primary
Recovery

C. Material Balance

D. Secondary
Recovery

E. Conclusions
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 A - INTRODUCTION
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 INTRODUCTI
ON

➢ Natural drive (or primary recovery): the field is produced thanks

to its own energy

➢ Immiscible fluid injection (or secondary recovery): energy is

provided to the field through injection
– Water injection
– Gas injection

➢ Enhanced oil recovery methods (or tertiary recovery): energy

for production is provided through complex methods
– Miscible process
– Chemical process
– Thermal process
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 INTRODUCTI
ON

▪ Primary production mechanisms have to be understood / evaluated as early as

possible in the field history; they include:

➢ Monophasic fluid expansion & pore volume reduction

➢ Dissolved gas expansion

➢ Gas cap expansion

➢ Water influx - Active aquifer

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 INTRODUCTI
ON

▪ Definition / optimization and implementation of secondary and/or tertiary

production mechanisms are key issues in the field development strategy (when
required).

▪ Improved reservoir drainage mechanisms cover both secondary and tertiary

recovery:
➢ Natural drainage + Pressure maintenance by injection

➢ Water / Gas

➢ Chemicals

➢ Heat
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 B – PRIMARY RECOVERY
(Material balance)
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 Pressure Regimes

BURIAL
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 Pressure Regimes

OP=FP+GP
OP=overburden pressure
BURIAL
FP=fluid pressure
GP=grain pressure

OP gradient is about 1 psi/ft

FP gradient is about 0.45
psi/ft
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 Pressure Regimes

❑ A porous reservoir can be abnormally pressured with respect to

normal hydrostatic pressure

❑ For this to happen, the reservoir must be sealed off from the
surrounding strata

❑ One cause for abnormal pressure regime can be uplifting of the

reservoir in geological times and surface erosion

❑ This process will result in the reservoir pressure being too high for its
depth of burial

❑ One important conclusion is that abnormal pressure regime is indicative

of a confined reservoir, which when put into production, aquifer activity
will be negligible
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 Pressure Regimes

❑ If the reservoir contains water, oil and gas, the fluid pressure gradients are
(typical figures):
❑ (dP/dD) 0.45 psi/ft = 1g /cm3
water= 0.35 psi/ft = 0.8
❑ (dP/dD) oil= g/cm3
❑ (dP/dD) 0.08 psi/ft = 0.018
gas= g/cm3 Pressure

(dP/dD) gas

GOC
(dP/dD) oil

WOC
(dP/dD) water

Depth
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 Pressure Regimes

OP=FP+GP

Production

❑ When the reservoir is produced, without pressure maintenance, the

FP decreases
❑ Therefore the GP increases and the pore volume contracts
❑ This is called reservoir COMPACTION, which can be high for
some reservoirs, resulting in surface SUBSIDENCE
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 PRIMARY
RECOVERY

Reservoir performance behavior /

prediction
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 PRIMARY
RECOVERY
Recovery
mechanisms

PRIMAR Field is produced with its own

Y energy
= Natural Depletion

SECONDA Field is produced thanks to some external

RY action such as water injection, gas injection,
using additional energy

TERTIARY Complex secondary type of actions such as:

OR - chemical methods
ENHANCED - thermal methods
RECOVERY - miscible methods
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 DRIVE MECHANISMS AND RECOVERY

➢ Drive mechanism refers to the nature of the energy needed to

drive the fluids out of the reservoir, into the wellbore.

➢ Recovery mechanism refers to the manner by which the fluids

are displaced.
➢ Energy is present in the reservoir under different types:
➢ Pressure
➢ Dissolved gas

➢ Material Balance equation is the basic tool for the reservoir

engineer to analyze the reservoir performance and behavior.
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 DRIVE MECHANISMS

There are a number of drive mechanisms, but typically four main drive
mechanisms are split into two groups :

➢ Depletion Drive: the reservoir is of limited extend ; it is not in contact with

a large aquifer
➢ Monophasic fluid expansion & pore volume reduction

➢ Solution Gas Drive

➢ Gas Cap Drive

➢ Water Drive
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 PRIMARY
RECOVERY

Recovery
factor
Accumulation: oil or gas originally in
place
Reserves: recoverable oil or gas
RESERVES = ACCUMULATION x R%

R: recovery factor
10% < R < for oil
60% fields for
50% < R < gas fields
95%to a geological model, numerical model,
Reserves are attached
development scenario, economics, laws and contracts
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 PRIMARY
RECOVERY

CALCULATION METHODS OF PRODUCTION FORECASTS /

RESERVES
SIMPLIFIED METHODS
• Material balance (single cell
model)
• Decline laws

MODERN METHODS
• Numerical models
(Allows to handle heterogeneities)
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 C – MATERIAL BALANCE
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 MATERIAL
BALANCE

PRINCIPLE
S ▪ The reservoir pore volume is 100% filled-up with fluids.
▪ In reservoir conditions:
Initial Volume = Remaining Vol.
+ change in pore volume
+ Vol. of injected or entered fluid

It represents the equation of continuity for the considered

reservoir/ part of reservoir for a finite time interval

Can be described as the simplest reservoir simulation model (1

cell !)
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 MATERIAL
BALANCE

▪Evaluation of accumulation
(to be compared with volumetric methods)

OIL GAS WATER

Accumulation N G W

Cumulati NP GP WP
ve
production
Cumulati GI WI
ve
injection
All volumes are in standard conditions
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 MATERIAL
BALANCE
Fluid Volumes Before
Production

Surface
SC ST Volumes
F N B
G W STB (standard
(not STBmStandard
3, Barrels
included or SCF Standard Cubic
in Feet)
G • Bgci reserves)
Subsurface
Volumes (Reservoir
N• W• Barrels Reservoir m3)
Boi Bwi
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 MATERIAL
BALANCE

Fluid Volumes After

Production
SC ST ST
F B B
N
W Surface
G Gpc Np Wp Volume
s
P (standard
V m3, STB or
(G - G pc ) SCF)
Expansion / B gc
Subsurface
Compaction WB
Gs (N - N p ) Bo Volumes
Bgs w
(reservoir
W p Bw m3
or
We barrels)
Liberated Solution (externally derived
Gas water)
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 MATERIAL BALANCE - PVT
DATA

Evolution with pressure of main reservoir

properties

Bo
Bo
R
s R
 s
o

o

INITIAL
BUBBLE RESERVOIR
POINT PRESSURE
PRESSUR
E
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 MATERIAL
BALANCE

Phase envelope of a
mixture

Gas reservoirs
Oil reservoirs Gas reservoirs
with without retrograde
condensation
Pressur

retrograde
dissolved
✰ gases

with
e

Cricondenba
Pc r
c

P
i nt Critical
c
po point
ble
b e Cricondentherm
Buurv Liquid +
c
Zone ✰: No or poor
gas contribution of dissolved
Dry gases
100
75%
gas Zone : Appreciable
% 50 30% contribution of dissolved gases
condensation
%
20%
10 t Zone : Retrograde with
% w poin condensation of liquid in the
De ve
5% cur reservoir
0% Zone : Dry or wet
T Tc T gas
c c
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 MATERIAL
BALANCE

NATURAL
DEPLETION or
PRIMARY
RECOVERY
Different production mechanisms can occur

▪ Undersaturated oil (Fluid expansion and pore shrinkage)

▪ Solution gas drive
▪ Gas cap expansion
▪ Natural water influx
▪ Gas fields
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 MATERIAL BALANCE

I – UNDERSATURATED
OIL RESERVOIRS
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 DRIVE MECHANISMS

FLUID EXPANSION

➢ Fluid expansion & pore volume reduction: occurs when only one
phase is mobile in the reservoir.
▪ Undersaturated oil reservoirs as well as Gas and gas-condensate
reservoirs produce by fluid expansion and pore volume reduction.

➢ Reservoir performance:
▪ In Undersaturated oil reservoirs pressure declines very rapidly ; GOR
remains constant until reservoir pressure falls below bubble-point pressure.
▪ For Gas reservoirs recoveries reach high value due to the combination of two
specific characteritics:
• low gas viscosity
• High compressibility
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 Depletion Naturelle - Réservoir à Huile sous-saturée

O+W

Pi  Pb

Pf  Pb
W W
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 MATERIAL
BALANCE

Original
Conditions After
Après une oil has been
certaine production
conditions
initiales d'huile produced
Produce
Producte Produce
Producte
r
ur r
ur

gas cap
expansion
released gas
volume
rock and water expansion
net water influx
oil volume

Pi P
Boi, Bgi, Bo, Bg,
Rsi Rs
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 MATERIAL
BALANCE

Producte
ur
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 MATERIAL
BALANCE

NATURAL
DEPLETION or
Pb is Bubble Point
Pressure PRIMARY
RECOVERY
ö Pi > (undersaturated oil reservoir) one phase fluid
Pb (oil)
- Oil and connate water expansion
- Pores shrinkage
ö Pi (saturated oil reservoir)
P - Solution gas (expansion of
b
liberated gas)
- Gas cap expansion
ö Aquifer expansion

The field development strategy will take into account the strength of
the aquifer, relative permeabilities, etc
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 MATERIAL
BALANCE

Fluid
expansion Definition
of compressibility

 1 dV dV = - C V
C 
V dP dP

C0 = 1 to 3 x 10-4 bar -1

CW = 0.4 to 0.6 x 10-4 bar -1

CP = 0.3 to 1.5 x 10-4 bar -1

1
Cg  P = 30 x 10-4 bar -1 (300
bars)
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36
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COMPRESSIBILIT
CHAR

© 2009 - IFP
Training
 MATERIAL BALANCE

NATURAL DEPLETI0N - UNDERSATURATED OIL

Rocks and fluids expansion - Compressibilities

Demonstrate the relation between Co and Bo => trouver un topo de

démonstration de la relation
(for P>Pb)

Oil compressibility is given

by: Co   1 Voi. dVo

dP  Boi
Co .  1 
Bo P 
Boi Pi
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 MATERIAL
BALANCE
NATURAL DEPLETION -
UNDERSATURATED OIL

Material balance in the case: no

water entry
Produced volume = Increase of oil
volume
+
Increase of volume of water
+
Decrease of pore volume

Those variations of volumes are related to compressibilities.

Compressibilities of oil, water and rock being generally pretty low, the
expected recovery factor is low.
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 MATERIAL BALANCE

NATURAL DEPLETION - UNDERSATURATED OIL

Material balance in the case: no water entry

For a pressure drop P from Pi to P with P>Pb
• Oil volume increases
by Vp . Soi . Co . ∆P
• Water volume increases
by Vp . Swi . Cw . ∆P
• Pore volume shrinks by
Vp .Cp. ∆ P
Material balance: the rock and fluids volume changes of the reservoir is equal to Np
(cumulative production in standard conditions) converted in reservoir conditions.

Np . Bo  Vp . ∆P C o . S o i  C w . S w i  C p 
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 MATERIAL BALANCE

UNDERSATURATED Oil
Reservoir
• Assumption: No aquifer

• For a pressure drop ∆P, following NP production

a) oil volume expands: Vp So Co ∆P
b) water volume expands: Vp Swi Cw ∆P
c) pore volume decreases: Vp
Cp ∆P

Oil production
Np Bo = Vp(CoSo + CwSwi + Cp) ∆P = VpSo(Co + Cw
Swi Cp ) = So
 ∆P
or: Np Bo = N Boi Ce
So
∆P , a+b+c
with: Ce=(CoSo + CwSw +
or Boi Cp) / So
else: Np  N Ce
∆P Bo
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 MATERIAL
BALANCE

UNDERSATURATED Oil
Reservoir
Production:
Boi
Np  N Bo CeP
Only by expansion:
• Reviewing Np production, N can be
estimated

Recovery Factor:
Np Boi
R  
Ce  P N
Bo
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 MATERIAL
BALANCE

Numerical
example

Given:
N = 15 x 106
m 3
Oil compressibility: 2 x 10-4 bar-1
Swi: 25%
Cw = Cp= 0.6 x 10-4
bar-1 Pi, Boi: 300 bars,
1.5
P, Bo: 200 bars, 1.53
Pb: 100 bars

Calcula
te the
Recove
ry
Factor
Rf
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 MATERIAL
BALANCE

Numerical example
N = 15 x 106 m3
Oil compressibility: 2 x 10-4 bar-1
Swi: 25%
Cw = Cp=0.6 x 10-4
bar-1 Pi, Boi: 300 bars,
1.5
P, Bo: 200 bars, 1.53
Pb: 100 bars

1) Calculate Ce:
Ce = Co +
CwSwi / So
+ Cp / So
= 3 x 10-4 R = Np / N 
3) Determine
Rf: bar-1 2.9%

2) Calculate Np:
Np = 15 x
106 x 1.5 /
1.53 x 3 x
10-4 x 100
= 44 x 104
m3
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 SYMBOLS & UNITS

Symbols UNITS
US units metric
µg Gas viscosity cp cp
µo Oil viscosity cp cp

Bg Gas formation volume factor at pressure P Bbl/Mscf ratio

Bgi Initial gas formation volume factor Bbl/Mscf ratio

Bo Oil formation volume factor at pressure P ratio ratio

Boi Initial oil formation volume factor ratio ratio

Bt Total hydrocarbon formation volume factor Bbl/bbl ratio

Bti Initial total hydrocarbon formation volume factor Bbl/bbl ratio
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 SYMBOLS & UNITS (cont’d)
co Oil compressibility psi-1 bar-1
cp Pore compressibility (cf) psi-1 bar-1
cw Water compressibility psi-1 bar-1

P Pressure psi bar

Pb Bubble point pressure psi bar
Pi Initial pressure psi bar

Rl Liberated gas scf/bbl m 3 /m 3

Rs Solution gas at pressure P scf/bbl m 3 /m 3
Rsi Initial gas in solution at Pi scf/bbl m 3 /m 3

1 bbl = 5.615 cuft 1 bar = 14.5 psi

1 bbl = 0.159 m 3

Pstd = 14.7 psia Tstd = 60 °F

Pstd = 1.01325 barsa Tstd = 15 °C
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 MATERIAL
BALANCE

NATURAL DEPLETION -
UNDERSATURATED OIL
Material balance in the case: no
water entry
Numerical example
FIELD A… without water
entry
Cumulative production is given: 6
Np  1,17.10 bbls
Swi  14%
6 1 Cp = 4,36 . 10 - 6 psi- 1
Cw  3,28 .10 psi
Boi =1,3905
Pi  4740 psia
Bo =1,4168
P  3686 psia
1 What is the corresponding accumulation (OOIP)?
2 From static calculation OOIP= 100 MMbbl – Conclude ?
3 OOIP with Np=2.6 MMbbl and P= 2790 psi:
conclude ?
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 COMPACTION
DRIVE
❑ As a reservoir gets depleted, its fluid pressure decreases (by p),
hence the effective pressure on the rock grains increases (by p).
Therefore the compaction of the rock is seen as a contraction of
Vfpore volume
the Vf
 c f p
: Vf

❑ Where Cf, also called Cp, is the pore compressibility.

❑ For most rocks, Cf is of the order of 3 to 10 10-6 psi-1 .

❑ However, for some reservoirs, Cf can be much greater and
compaction becomes significant as a drive mechanism.
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 Ekofisk Subsidence
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49
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Ekofisk Subsidence

© 2009 IFP Training - EP - GRE - Geosciences - Reservoir Engineering

 Ekofisk Subsidence
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 COMPACTION DRIVE

❑ One such field is Bachaquero near Maracaibo (Venezuela)

❑ Bachaquero is one of the fields on the Bolivar Coast, where compaction reportedly
yields oil recovery of up to 20%.
❑ The chalk fields of the North Sea are also well known for compaction/subsidence, one
of them being Ekofisk.
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 COMPACTION
DRIVE

COMPACTION
DRIVE
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 MATERIAL BALANCE

II – SOLUTION GAS DRIVE

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 DRIVE MECHANISMS

SOLUTION GAS
DRIVE
➢ The solution gas drive mechanism: describes oil displacement by the
expansion of gas released from solution as pressure is reduced below bubble point.
➢ As oil and gas production goes on, pressure declines further, more gas is released from
solution.
➢ Gas flow increases, oil flow decreases, as a result of the increasing gas saturation in the
reservoir and of unfavorable relative permeability evolution.

➢ Reservoir performance:
➢ Solution gas drive reservoirs exhibit typically rapid reservoir pressure decline and
correspondingly, rapid oil production decline ;
➢ GOR rises rapidly from initial value to a maximum value, before declining rapidly.
➢ Oil recovery is generally low, typically ranging from 5 to 25 %
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 MATERIAL
BALANCE

OIL
FIELDS
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 MATERIAL
BALANCE

NATURAL DEPLETION – SOLUTION

GAS DRIVE
Solution gas
drive :
▪ Reservoir pressure decreases under Pb (bubble point pressure)

▪ Part of the gas dissolved in the oil is liberated in the reservoir

▪ Quick increase of the produced gas

▪ Fluids and rock compressibility effects can be neglected vs. expansion of the
liberated gas (gas compressibility is much bigger)
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 MATERIAL
BALANCE
SOLUTION GAS
Pro Pro Pro DRIVE
d. d. d.

O+G+
- Pr  b
W
P
- Inactive 100%/Sw
Swirr
W aquifer VP = W
VO + VGF + VW
(VP)i = (VP)t
at Pi VP = Voi + Vw
at P VP = Vor + Vw + Voi = Vor +
Vgf Vgf
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 Depletion Naturelle – Expansion du Gas
Cap

Pro Pro Pro

d d d
G+
G? W

Possible
(GOC) Pi = Pb at GOC
Pwf
gas
Pwf
i  Pb
coning Pwf

O+
W
Possible water
coning
(OWC)
i
W W
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 MATERIAL
BALANCE

FVF (Formation Volume variation with

Factor – B) pressure
FV
F

B
t Bt = Bo + ( Rsi - Rs ) *
Bg

fre
e
ga B
s o

B
o
1.
Pressure
0
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 MATERIAL
BALANCE

NATURAL DEPLETION – SOLUTION

Material balance GAS DRIVE
▪ Initial oil volume = remaining oil at P + released
solution gas
▪ N Boi  (N  Np) Bo  N Rsi  (N  Np) Rs  Gp Bg

Performance
P GO
s GO R
R
Pb
Psg
c
P

Np/
N
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 MATERIAL
BALANCE
SOLUTION GAS
DRIVE

Remaining
t en oil GOR
GoR
in plac
place m3/m3
m /m
3 3
e 400

4
300

3
200

2 100

P
400 300 200 100 0
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 MATERIAL
BALANCE

Dissolved gas drive ( Solution gas

drive )

ASSUMIN No gas cap

G No water
influx

When P decrease from Pi to P << Pb, following Np and Gp production, lets

introduce an additional term :

Gp
Rp   Average
GOR Np
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 MATERIAL
BALANCE

Dissolved gas drive ( Solution gas

drive )

Rock compressibility and interstitial water compressibility negligible

once free gas saturation develops

Np [Bo + (Rp - Rs) Bg] = N [(Bo - Boi) + (Rsi - Rs)

Bg]

Productio Expansion of oil + originally

n dissolved gas

N
Thus for a given abandonment pressure: R 
pN
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 Solution gas drive

The material balance equation can be simplified as:

Np (Bo  Boi )  (Rsi  Rs )Bg


N Bo 
(R p  Rs )Bg
cumulative gas oil ratio Rp. Np/N
30%
There is an inverse relationship between the oil recovery and the

10%
Rp
Conclusion: to obtain a good recovery, as much gas as
be kept
possible in the reservoir. If Rp> Rs, µo will
should
increase.
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 MATERIAL
BALANCE

DISSOLVED GAS
DRIVE

Critical gas saturation

(Sgc)
• Minimum gas saturation necessary for gas flow (Krg > 0)

• Laboratory measurements under reservoir conditions

• Sgc generally low, << 5% can reach 10% in vuggy carbonate reservoirs
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 MATERIAL BALANCE

III – GAS CAP EXPANSION

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 DRIVE MECHANISMS

GAS CAP DRIVE

➢ In presence of a gas cap above an oil zone, the pressure
decline associated with the production of oil will allow the gas cap to
expand and provide energy to produce the oil.
➢ To be effective, a large gas cap is necessary (initial or secondary gas
cap).
➢ For a secondary gas cap to form, high vertical permeabilities associated
with a relatively homogeneous reservoir are needed.

➢ Reservoir performance:
➢ An efficient gas drive mechanism exhibits typically slow reservoir pressure
decline and a slow oil production decline ;
➢ GOR rises slowly and progressively.
➢ Oil recovery is generally higher than for solution gas drive reservoirs and
depends highly upon the vertical permeabilities.
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 MATERIAL
BALANCE

GAS CAP
DRIVE
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 MATERIAL
BALANCE

GAS CAP
In case of a gas cap drive, DRIVE
let us introduce the ratio Volum
m
m  e
m: Volumof gas
GBg
m 
iNB
e
oi
mNB
zone
G  at
oi Bg
Pi
of
mNBi oil
GBg  Bg at P 
oi Bg
Pi zone
i
GBg - Gas cap expansion
GBgi
mNB
Bg   Bg - 1)
oi Bg ( Bg
mNBoi mNBoi
i i
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 MATERIAL BALANCE – GAS CAP
EXPANSION

E Reservoir
V evolution
A Gas-Cap
1/1938

1/1937

1/1936

1/1933

s
pied
2200
2100

2300

2400
0
160
00
17

19 0
0
18
00
00
20

Position of the gas-oil level for

Mile Six reservoir
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 MATERIAL BALANCE – GAS CAP
EXPANSION
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 Gas Cap drive

❑ With some assumptions, the material balance equation can be written

as:
Bg
N p [Bo  (R p  Rs )Bg ]  N[(Bo  Boi )  (Rsi  Rs )Bg  mBoi ( 
Bgi 1)]

❑ In which the right hand side contains the term describing the
expansion of the oil plus originally dissolved gas together with the
term for the expansion of the gas-cap gas.

❑ The equation is rather cumbersome and does not provide any clear
picture of the principles involved in the gas-cap drive mechanism.

❑ However, because of the gas-cap expansion, the pressure decline is

less severe than for a solution gas drive reservoir and generally the
oil recovery is greater, typically in the range 25-35 %, depending on
the size of the gas-cap.
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 MATERIAL BALANCE

IV – WATER DRIVE
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 DRIVE MECHANISMS

WATER DRIVE
➢ For a water drive reservoir, the pressure primary source of energy is supplied
by water influx (from an adjacent aquifer) into the reservoir.
➢ In most cases, the energy for this water movement comes from expansion of the rock and the
water in the aquifer.

➢ Reservoir performance:
➢ Water drive effectiveness is a function of the properties of the aquifer and not of the
reservoir.
➢ The two key parameters are the aquifer size and the aquifer transmissibility
(i.e. permeability x thickness).
➢ Total fluid rate remains generally constant, and if reservoir pressure is kept above bubble-
point, GOR remains constant. It is characteristic to see a steady increase in WOR.
➢ Oil recovery can reach value as high as 40 to 60 % .
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 RESERVOIR à HUILE ASSOCIE à un AQUIFERE INFINI
Rain

Surface

Oil

Aquifer
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 MATERIAL
BALANCE
Oil reservoir with natural water
influx
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 Natural water drive

❑ A drop in the reservoir pressure causes the aquifer to expand and

flow into the reservoir.
❑ Applying the compressibility definition to the aquifer, then:

We  (cw  c f )Wp
❑ If the aquifer is large, the above equation will be inadequate to
describe the water influx.
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 MATERIAL BALANCE - NATURAL WATER
INFLUX

Calculation of potential recovery with

water entry

• For a pressure drop Pi P following NP production

• Assuming Pb << P (for sake of simplicity)
a) Oil volume expands
b) Water volume expands
c) Pore volume decreases
d) Aquifer expands + Water entry We
e) Water production + Wp

Oil production = a + b + c + d – e

NpBo = NBoi Ce (Pi – P) + We - WpBw

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 MATERIAL BALANCE - NATURAL WATER
INFLUX

Calculation of potential recovery with

water entry

• NpBo = NBoi Ce (Pi – P) +

We We = Vw (Cw + Cp) (Pi
We
– P)
R 
Np
 Ce Pi  P  
N
Boi
Bo
NumericalNexample:
Given Aquifer volume : Vw = 500 x
106 m3 , Bo
Calculate Recovery
R=?
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 MATERIAL BALANCE - NATURAL WATER
INFLUX
Oil reservoir under aquifer action - Water Entry
Calculations
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 MATERIAL BALANCE - NATURAL WATER
INFLUX

Oil reservoir under aquifer

action
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 MATERIAL BALANCE - NATURAL WATER
INFLUX

Oil reservoir under aquifer

action
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 MATERIAL BALANCE - NATURAL WATER
INFLUX

Oil reservoir under aquifer

action
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 MATERIAL BALANCE - NATURAL WATER
INFLUX

Aquifer functions
• Van Everdingen and Hurst
method We Pi , t  ∑ CtD  tD
n
i i

B K ∆P
0 i

tD 
R φt µ R i2
e c
θ
R B φhcR i
i 2π 360 2
1
Closed 0
ite aquifer 1.
C(t) in
nf ifer
I u 5
aq

t D
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 MATERIAL BALANCE - NATURAL WATER
INFLUX
Aquifer
functions
• Van Everdingen and Hurst
method
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 MATERIAL BALANCE - NATURAL WATER
INFLUX

Oil reservoir under aquifer

action
WATER PRODUCTION

• The field production does not end with water

spurt Q
• Very often the field produces until water percentage reaches
98% (savings) Qow+
Qw
• The main question is to know how to treat produced water

• For reservoir studies, it is important to follow the climbing of

the water plan by means of observance wells
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 MATERIAL
BALANCE

Remark
s

1. Many reservoirs are linked to an aquifer >> than the

oil (or gas) field itself.

2. When P decreases, water tends to invade the reservoir

initially oil (or gas) bearing.

3. For an efficient drainage, it is important that this water invades

the reservoir regularly.
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 MATERIAL
BALANCE

Primary
recovery
Estimation of
reserves
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 MATERIAL
BALANCE

Natural drive mechanism of an

opened reservoir
Let us take the general case of a reservoir with an oil rim overlain by a gas-cap and underlain by an
aquifer.
The oil rim is produced and the production at surface will consist of oil, gas and water.
Initially, there is no injection of water or gas.

➢ The volumetric material balance expressed at reservoir

conditions is:
Initial volume occupied by the oil =

oil volume left in the reservoir with its dissolved gas

+ liberated gas from oil and staying in the reservoir

+ gas volume from the Initial gas cap invading the oil zone

+ water entry from aquifer – produced water

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 MATERIAL
BALANCE

Natural drive mechanism of an

opened reservoir

NBoi = ( N – Np ) Oil volume left in the reservoir with its dissolved

gas
Bo + [ N Rsi – Gp – ( N – Np ) Rs liberated gas from oil, staying in the
] Bg reservoir
gas cap
+ m N Boi { Bg / Bgi – expansion
water entry from aquifer -
1} produced water

And +RpW=e –GW B

p /p w
average produced
GOR
Np
Bt = Bo + ( Rsi – Rs ) total or two phase
FVF
Bg
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 MATERIAL
BALANCE

Generalised Material
Balance
Then, introducing Rp:

NBoi  (N  Np)Bo [(NRsi  Gp)  (N 

Np)Rs]Bg B
 mNBoi(  1)  We  Wp
g
Bg Bw
i
Becomes:

Np[Bo  (Rp  Rs)Bg]  N[(Bo  Boi)  (Rsi 

Rs)Bg] B
 mNBoi(  1)  We 
g
Bg WpBw
i
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 MATERIAL
BALANCE

Generalised Material
Introducing:
Introducin Balance
g:
D  Np[ Bt  (Rp  Rsi)
Bg ]

then
:
mNBo Bg
 1) We  WpBw
1  N[(Bt  Bti) i( Bgi
D  D 

D
DDI + SDI +
WDI
Depletion Drive index + Segregation Drive
Index + Water Drive Index
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 MATERIAL BALANCE

Remarks

1. The numerators of these fractions represent the expansions of:

• the initial oil zone,
• the gas cap,
• and the net water influx.

2. The denominator represents the volume of hydrocarbon

produced, expressed at present reservoir pressure conditions.

3. Those three parameters characterize the production

mechanisms of the reservoir and will guide the
operator in his choice for future development.
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 Natural water drive

❑ This is because the equation implies that the pressure drop p, which
is in fact the pressure drop at the reservoir boundary, is
instantaneously transmitted throughout the aquifer. This will be a
reasonable assumption only if the dimensions of the aquifer are of
the same order of magnitude as the reservoir itself.

❑ For a very large aquifer there will be a time lag between the pressure
change in the reservoir and the full response of the aquifer. In this
respect natural water drive is time dependent.

❑ For large aquifers a mathematical model is required which includes

time dependence, to cater for the fact that it takes a finite time for the
aquifer to respond fully to a pressure change in the reservoir. One
such analytical model has been established by Hurst and Van
Everdingen and is based on a concept of unsteady state water influx
theory.
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 MATERIAL BALANCE

V – GAS FIELDS
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 MATERIAL BALANCE – GAS
FIELD

Classificatio
n
1.Dry gas

2.Wet gas

3.Gas -
condensate
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 DRY GAS

Critical point
C
Pressure

Tres, Pres p1

p2

Separator Tc
Temperature
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 WET GAS

Critical point Tres, Pres p1

C
Pressure

p2

Separator

Tc
Temperature
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 CONDENSATE GAS

Tres, Pres p1
Critical point
Pressure

p2

Séparateur

Tc Tcc
Temperature
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 Dry Gas / Wet Gas

Gas Gas
Oil

AS
Condensate

TG
P

WE
C

AS
YG
oint
P

DR
ble
b
Bu

int
Po
w
De Separator
Separator
T
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 MATERIAL BALANCE – GAS
FIELD

Gas far more compressible than oil ⇒ high recovery

factor
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 GAS RESERVOIRS

SOME DEFINIT IONS

➢ Hydrocarbons are generally, sometimes loosely classified as either oil reservoir or gas
reservoirs, depending on the state of the reservoir contents at discovery.
➢ For gas reservoirs, the different gas definitions refer to the PVT behavior of the gas which
depends on the initial reservoir gas composition, initial reservoir pressure and
temperature.

➢ We will define as Gas reservoir as one in which the hydrocarbon in the reservoir
remains in the gaseous state throughout the life of the reservoir.

➢ Dry Gas reservoir:

➢ The gas in the reservoir is always monophasic, whatever the reservoir pressure.
➢ No liquid condensation occurs from reservoir through surface (separator).

➢ Wet Gas reservoir:

➢ The gas in the reservoir is always monophasic, whatever the reservoir pressure.
➢ At surface conditions, associated liquid is produced simultaneously with gas.

➢ Gas reservoir in which part of the gas condenses in-situ when the pressure
is reduced will be considered as Gas Condensates.
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 EQUATIONS OF
STATE
Equations of state : f(P, V, T,
n) = 0
PV =
. ideal gas law :
nRT PV
(Mariotte, 1650)
.. cubic equations = ZnRT
equation of state of
for real
gasstate
: Van der P = RT/(V-b) - a/V2 (1873)
Waals Redlich- P = RT/(V-b) -a/V(V- (1949
b)T½ )
Kwong
Soave-Redlich-Kwong P = RT/(V-b) - a(T)/V
(V+b) (1972)
Peng-Robinson P = RT/(V-b) - (1976)
a(T)/(V2+2bV-b2)
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 MAIN GAS
PROPERTIES

Vgre Pstd
Bg s Pres x =ZxRx
= Vgst Vres Pstd Tres Tres
d x Vstd = 1xRx Bg = x Zx
Tstd Eg
Tstd = 1/
Field
Bg °
Pres R
Units Zx
Bg = 0.028269 x T vol/vol
Pstd = 14.7 psia Tstd = 520 °
R P psi
a
460 +60°F(T
Metric st.) °
Units Zx K
Bg = 0.00352 T vol/
Pstd = 1.01325 barsa Tstd = 288 °
x P vol
K bars
273+15(Tst)
a
SI °
Zx K
Units
Bg = 351.8 x T vol/
Pstd = 101325 Pa Tstd = 288 °
P vol
(a) K Pa

Vol of 1 mole of gas at std conditions {1 atm, 288 K (15°C)}:

23.63 dm3 Vol of 1 mole of gas at normal conditions {1 atm, 273 K
(0°C)}: 22.414 dm3
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 MATERIAL BALANCE – GAS
FIELD

Material balance - Some

definitions

Expansion 1
factor: E Bg
E
=
Volume of n moles at reservoir
Bg conditions
Volume of n moles at standard
=
conditions
P o V o = Z n R To = n R
To PiVi = Zi n R Ti
V Po
Bg = Zi
Vo
i TPi
=i x i o
T
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 MATERIAL BALANCE – GAS
FIELD

Gas material
balance
No water entry
When P decreases from Pi to P, volume occupied by gas under reservoir
conditions does not change

G Bgi = (G - Gp)
Bg
G : initial accumulation at standard
conditions Gp : gas production at standard
conditions
Bgi Zi P
 x
Bg Pi Z
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 MATERIAL BALANCE – GAS
FIELD

Gas material
balance
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 MATERIAL BALANCE – GAS
FIELD

Gas material
balance

Be aware of wrong evaluation of gas in place if aquifer action not

detected - Necessity of observation wells
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 MATERIAL BALANCE – GAS
FIELD

The sensitive approach (based on -

Havlena/Odeh, 1964)

Production = GIIP x (unit expansion) + Influx ⇒ Gp Bg = G (Bg-Bgi) + We (rcf)

F = G Eg + W e
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 MATERIAL BALANCE – GAS
FIELD

GAS
RESERVOIR

No aquifer : High recovery (R =

90 %)
Aquifer : Trapped gas, lower recovery (R = 70 %)

• If aquifer is moderate, to increase recovery producing

faster is a good solution

• Necessity of observation well to monitor water rise

• Necessity to evaluate Sgrw (log - core)

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 Rate Effect on Recovery Factor

❑ Case of a confined Reservoir (no aquifer)

Depletion is only due to the gas expansion so the recovery factor

is independent of rate

❑ Case of an unconfined Reservoir (active aquifer)

Risk of trapping High Pressure Gas

Gas saturation reduced by water entry
Risk to flood gas producers
Recovery Factor may fall down to 50,
60 %

Recommendation :

Produce at a high rate

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 Summary

❑ Natural drainage mechanisms for oil reservoirs:

❑ Monophasic expansion RF few %
❑ Solution Gas Drive RF 10-25 %
❑ Gas cap drive RF 25-35 %
❑ Natural water drive RF up to 50-60 %
❑ Compaction drive RF 0-20 %

❑ Natural drainage mechanisms for gas reservoirs:

❑ No aquifer RF up to 90 %
❑ With active aquifer RF 50 to 70
%
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 Conclusions

❑ Material Balance is the basic tool for the Reservoir Engineer to:
❑ Check production data consistency
❑ Check consistency between geological evaluation and reservoir
behaviour
❑ Understand the reservoir behaviour
❑ To design a future complementary development plan
❑ Production forecast calculations
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 KEY POINTS :

FLUID EXPANSION &DRIVE

pore volume reduction:

MECHANISMS
❑ Occurs when only one phase is mobile in the reservoir:
✓ Undersaturated oil reservoirs as well as Gas and gas-condensate
reservoirs produce by fluid expansion and pore volume reduction.

❑ Reservoir performance:
✓ In Undersaturated oil reservoirs pressure declines very rapidly ; GOR
remains constant until reservoir pressure falls below bubble-point
pressure.
✓ For Gas reservoirs recoveries reach high value due to the
combination of two specific characteritics:
▪ low gas viscosity
▪ High compressibility
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 KEY POINTS :

SOLUTIONDRIVE
GAS DRIVE:

❑The solution gas drive mechanism: MECHANISMS

describes oil displacement by
the expansion of gas released from solution as pressure is reduced
below bubble point :
✓ As oil and gas production goes on, pressure declines further, more gas is
released from solution.
✓ Gas flow increases, oil flow decreases, as a result of the increasing gas
saturation in the reservoir and of unfavorable relative permeability
evolution.
❑ Reservoir performance:
✓ Solution gas drive reservoirs exhibit typically rapid reservoir pressure
decline and correspondingly, rapid oil production decline ;
✓ GOR rises rapidly from initial value to a maximum value, before
declining rapidly.
✓ Oil recovery is generally low, typically ranging from 5 to 25 %
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 KEY POINTS :

GASDRIVE CAP
DRIVE:
MECHANISMS
❑Inpresence of a gas cap above an oil zone, the pressure decline
associated with the production of oil will allow the gas cap to expand
and provide energy to produce the oil.
✓ To be effective, a large gas cap is necessary (initial or secondary gas
cap).
✓ For a secondary gas cap to form, high vertical permeabilities
associated with a relatively homogeneous reservoir are
needed.
❑ Reservoir performance:
✓ An efficient gas drive mechanism exhibits typically slow reservoir
pressure decline and a slow oil production decline ;
✓ GOR rises slowly and progressively.
✓ Oil recovery is generally higher than for solution gas drive
reservoirs and depends highly upon the vertical permeabilities.
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 KEY POINTS :

WATER
DRIVE

DRIVE:
MECHANISMS

❑For a water drive reservoir, the pressure primary source of energy

is supplied by water influx (from an adjacent aquifer) into the
reservoir.
✓ In most cases, the energy for this water movement comes from
expansion of the rock and the water in the aquifer.

❑ Reservoir performance:
✓ Water drive effectiveness is a function of the properties of the
aquifer and not of the reservoir.
✓ The two key parameters are the aquifer size and the aquifer
transmissibility (i.e. permeability x
thickness).
✓ Total fluid rate remains generally constant, and if reservoir pressure is
kept above bubble-point, GOR remains constant. It is characteristic to see
a steady increase in WOR.
✓ Oil recovery can reach value as high as 40 to 80 % .
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 KEY POINTS :

GAS DRIVE
RESERVOIRS:

MECHANISMS
❑For a gas reservoir, the gas compressibility becomes dominant
and is a very significant drive mechanisms.

❑ Reservoir performance:
✓ In the absence of an active aquifer, high recoveries can be
achieved, up to 90 %.
✓ In presence of an active aquifer, the risk of trapping gas lead to
lower recoveries ( RF = 70 % )
▪ Necessity of observation well to monitor water rise.
▪ Necessity to evaluate Sgrw (log - core).
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 KEY POINTS : CONCLUSIONS

❑ Material Balance is the basic tool for the Reservoir Engineer to:

✓ Check production data consistency

✓Check consistency between geological evaluation and reservoir

behaviour

✓ Understand the reservoir behaviour

✓ To design a future complementary development plan

✓ Production forecast calculations

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 THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION
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