1. Compare the light emitted in image A and image B.

Image A:
_________________________________________
Image B:
_________________________________________
2. What could be the reason why the two flashlights differ
in light emission?
3. What is stored in the battery which enables the
flashlight to emit light?
4. How can the light emitted in the two flashlights be the
same?
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 ENERGY
• Is defined as the capacity to do work.
• All forms of matter in the entire universe
contain a certain amount of energy.
• Without energy, no life can possibly exist on
earth.
Two important laws about energy are
demostrated in this unit, namely:
1. the law of conservation of energy-”that energy
can neither be created nor destroyed, it can only
be converted from one form to another”; and
2. the law of entropy-”that energy is
spontaneously converted from higher to lower
quality, lost mostly in the form of heat.”
• From the Greek
PHOTO = produced by light
SYNTHESIS = a whole made of parts put
together.

Definition: PHOTOSYNTHESIS is the process

whereby plants, algae, some bacteria,
use the energy of the sun to synthesize organic
compounds (sugars) from inorganic compounds
(CO2 and water).
 Photosynthesis
Sunshine plays a bigger role in our
lives than you may think. All the food
we eat and the fossil fuels we burn
are products of photosynthesis.

Plants turn solar energy into food

which is nice of them because
animals can’t eat sunshine.

When animals eat plants and other animals,

that original solar energy is passed along
the food chain.
How are the producers
structurally adapted for
photosynthesis?
• As producers, plants possess leaves that
enable them to perform photosynthesis.
 External structure
• One structural difference among plants is their
manner by which their leaves are arranged on
the stem.
• You can classify them according to phyllotaxy,
or leaf arrangement on the stem whether they
are:
Alternate, opposite or whorled.
 PHYLLOTAXY

Alternate has one, opposite two and whorled three or

more leaves on every node of the stem.
 LAMINA
• The main part of the
leaf
• or also known as the
leaf blade
• which is usually, thin
flat, broad, and green in
color due to the
presence of the
pigment called
chlorophyll.
 Petiole
• is a stalk that connects the blade with the leaf
base.
 Leaves can be classified into two types:
• simple-when there is
justone piece of lamina
• The leaf may be lobed or
divided, but does not form
distinct leaflets.
• compound-when the
lamina is divided into
small pieces called
leaflets.
• The leaf is separated into
distinct leaflets, each with
its own small petiole (but
without an axillary bud).
 Internal Structure
At cross section, leaf has 3
major parts:
a. upper and lower surface
layers of cells, the
epidermis.
b. the vein made of
vascular tissues
c.the middle layers of
cells, the mesophyll.
 EPIDERMIS
• protective layer of cells
covering the entire
surface of the leaf.
• it is coated with a
waterproof, waxy
material called cutin.
• the lower epidermis is
provided with pores
called stomata (singular,
stoma).
 stomata
• The outer layers of leaves
and some stems have small
openings called stomata, or
stoma, that allow gas
exchange and regulate
water loss.
• Each stoma is opened and
closed by two guard cells
that surround it—when the
guard cells swell, the stoma
opens; when the guard cells
deflate, the stoma closes.
 VEIN
• The vein of a leaf is
made of vascular
tissues, namely, the
upper xylem for the
transport of water and
the lower phloem for
the transport of food in
the form of sucrose.
 Mesophyll
• Photosynthesis occurs largely
in the mesophyll.
• it form distinct upper palisade
and lower spongy region.
• Palisade cells are special
cells in the leaves of plants.
They are the main place
where photosynthesis takes
place. Their function is to
absorb light so
photosynthesis can take
place.
WHY IS PHOTOSYNTHESIS SO
IMPORTANT?
PHOTOSYNTHESIS is one of the most
important biological process on earth
• Provides the oxygen we breathe
• Consumes much of the CO2
• Food
• Energy
• Fibers and materials
Nature of

Lig
LL
 LIGHT

• Light is a form of energy. It

can be converted into other
forms.
• In plants, light is converted
into chemical energy
through the process of
photosynthesis which
occurs in leaves.
• Generally, visible light is defined as the
wavelengths that are visible to most human
eyes.
 Properties of Light
Light travels in straight lines:

Laser
 PROPERTIES OF LIGHT

Light may be transmitted, reflected, absorbed, or

scattered as it strikes a material. These
phenomena are influenced by the nature of the
material by which light strikes.
• Opaque Materials
• Transparent Materials
• Translucent Materials
• Light exhibits the
characteristics and
properties of a wave.
• It does not need a medium
in order to propagate.
• It moves in its maximum
speed in a vacuum.
• But this speed decreases as
it moves along different
media.
• This characteristic of light
consequently shows
bending when it crosses
the boundary between two
media.
 Color of Light: Its Wavelength, Frequency and Energy
The table below indicates the different wavelength, frequency, and
energy of the colors of a rainbow from prism illustration.

When a narrow beam of white light enters a rectangular glass block called
prism, the beam splits into different range of colors called the spectrum. The
process by which light is separated into its colors due to differences in
degrees of refraction is dispersion.
 Color
White light is not a single color; it is made up of a
mixture of the seven colors of the rainbow.

We can demonstrate this by splitting

white light with a prism:

This is how rainbows are formed:

sunlight is “split up” by raindrops.
 Seeing color
The color an object appears depends on the colors of
light it reflects.

For example, a red book only reflects red light:

White Only red light

light is reflected
• When light passed through a prism,
each wavelength is bent at a
particular angle.
• white light is separated into its
constituent band of red, orange,
yellow, green, blue and violet colors.
• When the light strikes an object , it may
be absorbed, reflected or transmitted.
• when the light is absorbed, light is
transformed from one form to another.
• the part of the light that is not absorbed is
either reflected or transmitted.
• Opaque objects reflect light.
• transparent objects transmit light.
• whatever wavelength is reflected or
transmitted is seen as the cor of the object.
• Chlorophyll does not absorb green light.
Hence, leaves taht contain chlorophyll are
green; being opaque, they scatter or reflect
green light in all directions.
 CHLOROPHYLL
AND OTHER
PLANT PIGMENT
• Light from the sun is absorbed by colorful
compounds called pigments. The structure
and amount of pigments determine the
variations in color.
• Plant cells have plastids, which are cellular
structures that generally hold pigment
molecules.
• Plastids that contain the green pigment
chlorophyll are called chloroplasts.
• The chlorophyll pigment in leaves
helps make photosynthesis happen
by absorbing light energy from the
sun to put together carbon dioxide
and water to form glucose or food.
• All colors of visible light except green are
absorbed by chlorophyll, which it reflects to be
detected by our eyes.
• Chlorophyll gives plants their green color and
may hide the other pigments found in leaves.
• If all colors or wavelengths of visible light are
absorbed and none are reflected, the pigment
appears black to our eyes.
• On the contrary, if all colors or wavelengths of
light are reflected, the pigment appears white
to our eyes.
 Chlorophyll
• appear green because the pigments absorb
light on all of the color ranges, and only green
is transmitted to our eyes.
• Chlorophyll a is the core pigment that absorbs
sunlight for light-dependent photosynthesis.
• It readily absorbs violet/blue and red light but
not
much of the lighter blue, and green and yellow
light. It looks bluish green.
• Leaves have evolved to produce
several other pigments called
accessory pigments.
• Accessory pigments absorb
wavelengths of light that
chlorophyll cannot absorb
effectively, enabling the plant to
use more of the sun’s energy.
The following are the types of accessory
pigments:
1. Chlorophyll b – It is structurally only slightly
different from chlorophyll a but its absorption
spectrum is somewhat different.
• It absorbs more in the blue and orange-red
ranges.
• It looks yellowish green.
• Captured energy is handed over to chlorophyll
a, which is a smaller but more plentiful
molecule in the chloroplast.
2. Carotenoids – They absorb light from violet to
the greenish-blue range.
• They appear in various shades of yellow or
yellow orange to our eyes.
• They cluster next to chlorophyll a molecules to
efficiently hand off absorbed photons.
• They are usually found attached to proteins or
membranes in the chloroplasts.
3. Anthocyanins – They do not participate in
photosynthesis and may appear red, purple, or blue.
• They occur widely among higher plants.
• They are pigments that generally give color to
flowers but also occur in leaves and fruits.
• In leaves, these pigments often help to protect
against excessive sunlight that can damage some
leaf tissues.
• This is one reason why a young, newly developing
leaf is often redder than when it reaches its
mature size.
4. Xanthophylls – They pass along light energy to
chlorophyll a and act as antioxidants.
• The molecular structure gives xanthophylls the
ability to accept or donate electrons.
• Xanthophyll pigments produce the yellow color
in fall leaves.
• The presence of accessory pigments explains
why not all leaves are green
• Accessory pigments are important since they
help absorb light and then pass the energy to
chlorophyll a, a primary pigment.
ATP Structure
and
Hydrolysis
How do organisms
carry out essential
life processes?
• Cells in organisms obtain energy from the
chemical bonds that hold together certain
organic compounds, such as carbohydrates
from the food that we eat.
• This energy in turn is used to produce
adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
What is
ATP?
 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
• energy-carrying molecule found in the cells of
all living things.
• ATP captures chemical energy obtained from
the breakdown of food molecules and releases
it to fuel other cellular processes.
• is the source of energy for use and storage at
the cellular level.
 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

• ATP is an organic molecule used for short-term

energy storage and transport in the cell.
It is composed of three parts:
• a nitrogenous base (adenine)
• a sugar (ribose)
• three phosphate groups (triphosphate)
• The three phosphate groups in an ATP
molecule are negatively charged.
• Molecules with the same charge will repel
each other as they come closer together while
molecules with opposite charges will attract.
• Thus, this means that the three phosphate
groups are in an unstable arrangement.
• The third phosphate group is so eager to get
further away from the two phosphate groups.
• A bond between them is broken through
hydrolysis (water-mediated breakdown)
reaction releasing energy.
• The remaining free phosphate group and low-
energy molecule is called adenosine
diphosphate (ADP).
 HYDROLYSIS
• Hydrolysis ("hydro" = water and "lysis" =
break) involves adding water to one large
molecule to break it into multiple smaller
molecules.
• involves the reaction of an organic chemical
with water to form two or more new
substances and usually means the cleavage of
chemical bonds by the addition of water.
Pi stands for an inorganic
phosphate group . ATP
is hydrolyzed in the
following reaction:
 ATP-ADP Cycle
• The hydrolysis of ATP to ADP is reversible .
• ATP and ADP are like charged and uncharged forms
of a rechargeable battery.
• ATP (charged battery) has energy that can be used
to power cellular processes or reactions.
• Once the energy is used up, ADP (uncharged
battery/dead battery) needs to be recharged in
order to be used as a power source.
Remember:
•  When ATP is broken down, energy is released
and ADP is formed. 
• When ADP binds with another phosphate group,
energy is stored and ATP is formed.
 Energy Coupling
• Energy coupling, by definition, stands for a concept
of coupling two biological reactions; meaning energy
generated from one reaction is used to drive the
second reaction.
• Two different reactions or biological systems are
coupled together or put into synchrony this way. All cells
have majorly 2 types of reactions going on in them:
• exergonic (energy outward) or endergonic (energy
inward)
• Exergonic reaction - that are energy-releasing reactions
(thus, energetically-favorable) energy is released to the
surroundings. The bonds being formed are stronger than
the bonds being broken.
• Endergonic reaction - that are the energy-demanding
reactions (thus, energetically-unfavorable).
• energy is absorbed from the surroundings. The bonds
being formed are weaker than the bonds being broken.
How is the energy released by ATP hydrolysis
used to power other reactions in a cell?

• In most cases, cells use a strategy called reaction

coupling, in which an energetically favorable reaction
(like ATP hydrolysis) is directly linked with an
energetically unfavorable (endergonic) reaction.
• The linking often happens through a shared
intermediate, meaning that a product of one reaction
is “picked up” and used as a reactant in the second
reaction.
• One example of energy coupling involving ATP is the
formation of sucrose (table sugar) from glucose and
fructose
• In the uncoupled reaction, glucose and fructose
combine to form sucrose.
• In the coupled reaction, there are two reactions that
take place:
1. A phosphate group is transferred from ATP to
glucose, forming a phosphorylated glucose
intermediate (glucose-P). This is an energetically
favorable reaction or exergonic reaction.
2. The glucose-P intermediate reacts with fructose to
form sucrose. Because glucose-P is relatively unstable,
this reaction also releases energy and is spontaneous.
 Formation of sucrose
(table sugar) from
glucose and fructose
(uncoupled and
coupled reactions).

The strategy in the example above is used in many metabolic pathways in the cell,
providing a way for the energy released through ATP to ADP conversion to drive
other reactions forward.
• Many times, the cell couples these two reactions
and bridges the gap between them.
• The energy that is released by the exergonic
reactions is channeled down to the endergonic
reactions to make them energetically favorable
too.
• This smart work by the cell ensures that the cellular
reactions never run out of the energy source i.e., ATP.
• This “reactions linking or coupling” is a vital
mechanism that ensures that the cellular machinery
never grinds down to a halt and the cell remains
alive. It is through this energy coupling that cells use
ATP in the endergonic reactions.
• If a cell needs to spend energy to accomplish a task, the
ATP molecule splits off one of its three phosphates,
becoming ADP (Adenosine di-phosphate) + phosphate.
• The energy holding that phosphate molecule is now
released and available to do work for the cell.
• When the cell has extra energy (gained from breaking down
food that has been consumed or, in the case of plants,
made via photosynthesis), it stores that energy by
reattaching a free phosphate molecule to ADP, turning it
back into ATP.
• The ATP molecule is just like a rechargeable battery. When
it’s fully charged, it’s ATP.
• When it’s run down, it’s ADP. However, the battery doesn’t
get thrown away when it’s run down–it just gets charged up
again.
• The hydrolysis of ATP not only results to a release of
energy but also would simply result in organisms’
overheating because the dissipation of energy would
excite nearby molecules, resulting in heat or thermal
energy.
• Energy in a cell needs to be linked to other processes in
order to be useful.
• Energy coupling is the transfer of energy from one
chemical reaction to another.
• An energetically favorable reaction (exergonic, e.g., ATP
hydrolysis) is directly linked with an energetically
unfavorable reaction (endergonic, e.g., ATP
regeneration). Through energy coupling, the cell can
perform nearly all of the tasks it needs to function.
Go Out and Thank a Tree!
A. Fill in the space and give the equation. Explain each process.(20 pts.)
B.Give the following types of accesory pigment and
give its function and description(5 points Each).