Organic compounds

Four types Macromolecules

Many important biochemicals can be joined together to
make polymers such as DNA and proteins. These
macromolecules are essential parts of all living organisms.

• Carbohydrates are energy sources for cell

Carbohydrates s.
• Lipids are components of cell membranes.
Lipid ( fats) • Proteins Give Cells Structure and
Perform most Cellular Tasks.
proteins • Nucleic Acids Carry Coded Information
Nucleic acids for Making Proteins at the Right Time and
Place.
Four types Macromolecules

Carbohydrates (sugars)
Carbohydrates are the most abundant of the four major classes of
biomolecules.

Carbohydrates make up most of the

organic matter on Earth because of their
extensive roles in all forms of life.
Such as the storage and transport of energy
(e.g., starch, glycogen) Figure 2-12
Structural components (e.g., cellulose in
plants and chitin in animals).
Carbohydrates and their derivatives play
major roles in the working process of the
immune system, fertilization, pathogenesis,
blood clotting, and development.
Carbohydrates (sugars)

Four forms of sugar

1. Monosaccharide (single unit sugars)
2. Disaccharides (two unit sugars)
3. Oligosaccharides (3 to 10 unit sugars)
4. Polysaccharide (hundreds or thousands of sugar
s)
Four forms of sugar

Oligosaccharides (1)
Typically Oligosaccharides are composed of longer chains of mo
nosaccharide units which between two and nine bound together
by the glycosidic linkage.

Figure 2-18 (1) Oligosaccharides are often found as a component of glycoprotein

s or glycolipids and often used as chemical markers; (2) three-dimensional glyco
protein .
Four forms of sugar

Polysaccharides (1)
Polysaccharides are composed of longer chains which contain gr
eater than ten monosaccharide units bound together by the glyco
sidic linkage .
Polysaccharides represent an important class of biological poly
mers. Their function in living organisms is usually either structu
re- or storage-related.

There are two kinds of polysaccharides:

Storage polysaccharides:
Starch (in plant)
Glycogen (in animal)
Structural polysaccharides:
Cellulose (in plant)
Chitin( in animals) Figure 2-21
Four types Macromolecules

Lipids
Lipids are the most diverse group of biochemicals.
Lipids serve as many functions in living organisms including energy s
torage, serve as structural components of cell membranes, and constitu
te important signaling molecules.
Lipids are usually defined as hydrophobic or amphipathic biological
molecules that will dissolve in organic solvents.

Figure 2-26 The hydrophobic and amphipathic molecules :

(1)triacylglyceride; (2)phospholipid and cholesterol, (3)memb
rane structure and (4)liposome for drug delivery
Amino acids and proteins

Amino Acids
Amino acids are critical to life, and have a variety of roles in metabolis
m. One particularly important function is as the building blocks of protei
ns.
Consists of a carbon atom bonded to a carboxyl group (COO -), an amino
group (NH3+), a hydrogen atom and a distinctive side chain which deter
mine the each amino acid in protein structure and function.
All amino acids (except glycine) exist as optical isomers in D- and L- fo
rms. (like sugars),
There are 20 different amino acids.

Figure 2-31 The general structure of

an α-amino acid, with the amino
group on the left and the carboxyl
group on the right
Amino acids and proteins

Polypeptides
Proteins (polypeptides) are made of amino acids arranged in a
linear chain and joined together by peptide bonds. Figure 2-34.

Polypeptides are linear chains of amino acids.

Each polypeptide chain has two distinct ends,
the amino or N- terminus and the carboxyl or C-
terminus.
Polypeptides are synthesized from the amino to
the carboxyl terminus.
An amino acid polymer may display acidic or
basic properties because of the presence of
acidic or basic side-chains in its constituent
amino acid units.
Amino acids and proteins

Protein Structures
Primary structure:
---The unique sequence of amino acid residues.
Secondary structure:
---Regularly repeating local structures stabilized by hydrogen bonds.
The most common examples are alpha helix and beta sheet. Because
secondary structures are local, many regions of different secondary
structure can be present in the same protein molecule.
Tertiary structure:
---The overall shape of a single protein molecule.
Quaternary structure:
---The shape or structure that results from the interaction of more
than one protein molecule, usually called protein subunits which
function as part of the larger assembly protein or protein complex.
Nucleic Acids

Nucleotides Figure 2-38 Common structure of nucle

otides, all have a common structure: a ph
osphate group linked by a phosphoester b
ond to a pentose (a five-carbon sugar mol
ecule) that in turn is linked to a nitrogen-
and carbon-containing ring structure com
monly referred to as a “base”; RNA, the p
entose is ribose; in DNA, it is deoxyribos
e.
Adenosine 5’- monophosphate (AMP),
a nucleotide present in RNA. By conventi
on, the carbon atoms of the pentoses suga
r in nucleotides are numbered with primes.
In natural nucleotides, the 1’ carbon is jo
Nucleotides consist of in by the base (blue) and the phosphate on
a pentose the 5’ hydroxyle (red) extends above the
a phosphate plane of the furanose rings.
a nitrogenous base
Nucleic Acids
Structure of DNA and RNA

Figure 3-39 DNA  double stranded

RNA single stranded and some parts can
partner with each other look like double
stranded . The function is Intermediate in
the production of proteins.
 Macromolecules
their Polyer Forms
Molecule monomer forms polymer forms Examples of poly
mer forms

Fibrous proteins
Amino acids Amino acids polypeptides globular proteins

Starch glycogen a
Carbohydrates Monosaccharides Polysaccharides nd cellulose

Nucleic acids Nucleotides Polynucleotides DNA and RNA