ACIDS AND BASES

L E S S O N 2 1 : A C I D / B A S E T H E O RY
 PROPERTIES OF ACIDS AND BASES

• Can be defined empirically and theoretically

• Empirical: observable properties

• Ie. colour and size of flame when Mg burns.

• Theoretical: explains and describes the scientific observations

• Ie. Mg atom losing electrons to form Mg2+ and oxygen atom gaining
electrons to form O2-.
 EMPIRICAL DEFINITIONS

• Acid – a substance that dissolves to produce a solution that

• tastes sour
• Turns blue litmus red
• Conducts electricity
• Reacts with metals to produce H2(g)
• Neutralizes bases
• pH less than 7
 EMPIRICAL DEFINITION

• Base - a substance that dissolves in water to produce a

solution that
• Tastes bitter/ feels slippery
• Turns red litmus blue
• Conducts electricity
• Neutralizes acids
• pH greater than 7

Neutral substances may or may not conduct electricity, but they do

not have to same influence on indicators
 THEORETICAL DEFINITIONS

• Arrhenius
• Acid - a substance that forms an acidic solution by dissolving
in water to produce free hydrogen ions (H+(aq)) in solution
Ionization
HCl(aq)  H +
(aq) + Cl (aq)
-
equation

• Base – a substance that forms a basic solution by dissolving in

water to produce free hydroxide ions (OH-(aq)) in solution
Dissociation
NaOH(aq)  Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) equation

But what about ammonia??

NH3 registers as a base using litmus paper, but it won’t dissociate to
produce free hydroxide ions. How do we explain this?
 THEORETICAL DEFINITIONS

• Modified
• Acid - a species that forms an acidic solution by reacting with
water to produce hydronium ions (H3O+(aq))
HCl(aq) + H2O(aq)  H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

• Base - a species that forms a basic solution by reacting with

water to produce hydroxide ions
NH3(aq) + H2O(aq)  NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
 HYDRONIUM ION

• chemists thought it unlikely that a

hydrogen ion could exist on its
own in solution
• the extremely positive ion would
bond strongly to the polar water
molecules
• the modern view of acids and
bases is that the hydronium ions
are responsible for the acidic
properties, and the hydroxide ions
are responsible for the basic
properties
 Rules are on you formula
REMEMBER sheet
 EXPLAINING ACIDS AND BASES

• Remember: Arrhenius (original)

• Acid - a substance that forms an acidic solution by dissolving

in water to produce free hydrogen ions (H+(aq)) in solution
HCl(aq)  H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) *It is the presence of H+ ions
that give the solution it’s
acidic properties
• Base – a substance that forms a basic solution by dissolving in
water to produce free hydroxide ions (OH-(aq)) in solution
NaOH(aq)  Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
*It is the presence of
OH- ions that give the
solution it’s basic
properties
 EXPLAINING ACIDS AND BASES

• Arrhenius did not know the hydrogen ion was better described
as a hydronium ion; hydrogen ion bonded to water molecule

• Easy to predict HCl(aq) : HCl(aq)  H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

ACID
• What about : NaHCO3(aq) or CO2(g) ACID or
BASE?
 EXPLAINING ACIDS AND BASES

• Acid - a species that forms an acidic solution by reacting with

water to produce hydronium ions (H3O+(aq))
Modified Arrhenius

• NaHSO4(aq)  Na+(aq) + HSO4-(aq)

Dissociation
• HSO4-(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
Then reacts with water
 EXPLAINING ACIDS AND BASES

• Base - a species that forms a basic solution by reacting with water

to produce hydroxide ions
Ca(OH)2(aq)  Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)

No need to show reaction with water because hydroxide is already

present, so simple dissociation produces hydroxide
NH3(aq) + H2O(aq)  NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

Na2CO3(aq)  Na+(aq) + CO32-(aq)  Dissociate first

CO32-(aq) + H2O(aq)  HCO3-(aq) + OH-(aq)
Modified definition is necessary here to
explain how hydroxide ions form
Look at the compound first. If it dissociates, dissociate it. If not, react it with water.
 SUMMARY
THESE RULES DO NOT APPLY TO ALL SCENARIOS – Specific for ion bases and
ion acids Ie. HSO - is an acid
4

We will look at an example of this in a moment

 PRACTICE

potassium bicarbonate (ion acid) is added to water and the pH is

6.3. Write the modified Arrhenius equation for this evidence.
Prove this is an acid

Does it dissociate? This is a soluble ionic compound, it dissociates.

Choose the reactant that has a hydrogen

to donate to water

This proves
KHCO3 is
acidic
 PRACTICE

A student records the pH of a sodium carbonate (ion base)

solution to be 8.3. Write the modified Arrhenius equation.
Prove this is a base

Does it dissociate? This is a soluble ionic compound, it dissociates.

Choose the reactant that can accept a

hydrogen from water
Choose the anion

*Strong bases are

group 1 ions or
This proves NH4+ with OH-
Na2CO3 is
basic
 PRACTICE

SO2(g) (non metallic oxide) has acidic properties in water

*React metal oxides with 2 moles of water

OR
 Try these on your own!
MORE

• HI(aq) – explain acidic properties Does it dissociate?

• NaCH3COO(aq) – explain basic properties

Does it dissociate?

• HOCl(aq) – explain acidic properties

Does it dissociate?
 Try these on your own!

AND SOME MORE

• H3PO4(aq) – explain acidic properties Does it dissociate?

• Na2SO4(aq) – explain basic properties Does it dissociate?

• Sr(OH)2(aq) – explain basic properties

Does it dissociate?
 PREDICTING

We will ask you questions phrased to ask you to prove if something is acidic or basic. We
won’t ask you to predict if this is acidic or basic.
 NEUTRALIZATION

• Can now be defined as the reaction between hydronium and

hydroxide
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

• When we mix an acid and a base we must be mixing solutions

of hydronium and hydroxide ions, so
H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq)  2 H2O(l)
Remember this from
solutions?
 SUMMARY

• Acids: substances that react with water to produce hydronium

• Bases: substances
H3O+that react with water to form hydroxide

• Neutralization can be explained as a reaction between

hydronium ionsOHand
-
hydroxide ions to produce water

H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq)  2 H2O(l)

 STRENGTH OF ACIDS AND BASES

• Do all acids and bases have the same properties and to the
same degree?

NO!
 STRONG AND WEAK ACIDS

• An acid can be described as a weak acid if its characteristics

properties (under the same conditions) are less than those of a
common strong acid

• The 6 strong acids?

HClO4 HCl

HI HNO3
HBr
H2SO4
 STRONG ACIDS VS WEAK ACIDS

• Strong acids have: high conductivity, high rate of reaction with

metals, and a relatively low pH
• Many hydronium ions present
• Consistent with the idea that strong acids react completely (>99%) with
water to form hydronium ions
• Weak acids have: low conductivity, lower rate of reaction with
metals, and a relatively high pH
• Fewer hydronium ions present
• Consistent with idea that weak acids react incompletely(<50%) to form
hydronium ions
 WEAK ACIDS

• Because of this difference, weak acids are much safer to

handle
 STRONG AND WEAK BASES

Strong bases
• Strong bases have: high conductivity, fast reaction rate, and very
high pH
• All soluble ionic hydroxides that dissociate completely (>99%) to
release OH-

Weak Bases
• Weak bases have: low electrical conductivity, slower reaction rate,
lower relative pH
• Ionic or molecular substance that reacts partially (<50%) with
water to produce relatively few hydroxide ions
• ie// NH3(aq) + H2O(l)  OH-(aq) + NH4+(aq)
 PRACTICE

• Explain the weak base properties of baking soda(NaHCO3).

Does it dissociate?

• Explain why sodium acetate has a pH of 8 when dissolved in

water.
Does it dissociate?
SUMMARY
 POLYPROTIC ACIDS

• Some acids have only one acidic hydrogen atom in the

compound formula (HA): these are called monoprotic acids
• ie// HI(aq) , HCl(aq) , HBr(aq)

• Some acids contain more than one acidic hydrogen and can
react more than once with water (HxA): these are called
polyprotic acids
• ie// H2SO4(aq) , H3PO4(aq)
 POLYTPROTIC ACIDS

H3PO4(aq) + H2O(l)  H3O+(aq) + H2PO4-(aq) (<50%)

H2PO4-(aq) + H2O(l)  H3O+(aq) + HPO42-(aq) (<1%)
HPO42-(aq) + H2O(l)  H3O+(aq) + PO43-(aq) (~0%)

• Each of the resulting ions is able to react with an additional

water to produce more hydronium ions, but these reaction are
even less complete
• With all these possible reactions you might think phosphoric
acid is very acidic, but only the first reaction is significant
 POLYPROTIC ACIDS

• Also the first reaction is only 50% complete, so it is actually a

weak acid and it has a pH noticeably higher than a strong acid
at the same concentration

Based on this evidence: in general, polyprotic acids are weak

acids whose reaction with water decreases with each successive
step
 H2SO4 is a notable exception to this rule. Its first
reaction is essentially complete, however the
second reaction is much less than 50% complete.
 POLYPROTIC BASES

• The same rule applies to bases.

• Some bases like CH3COO-(aq) are monoprotic bases, meaning
they can react with water only once to produce hydroxide ions
CH3COO-(aq) + H2O(l)  OH-(aq) + CH3COOH(aq)

• Others, like CO32-(aq) are polyprotic bases because they can

react with water more than once, but the reactions are much
less than 50%
CO32-(aq) + H2O(l)  OH-(aq) + HCO3-(aq) <50%
HCO3-(aq) + H2O(l)  Oh-(aq) + H2CO3(aq) <1%
 POLYPROTIC BASES

• In general, polyprotic bases are weak bases, whose reaction

with water decreases with each successive step

• Bases like Ba(OH)2 are polyprotic bases but there is no

possibility of successive reactions with water.
• Barium hydroxide dissociates to produce two hydroxide ions. Both will
react together (unlike traditional polyprotic bases that react successively
in steps)

Ba(OH)2(aq) → Ba2+(aq) + 2 OH–(aq)

 STRONG ACID VS. WEAK ACID VS.
CONCENTRATED ACID VS. DILUTED ACID
 STRONG VS. WEAK ACID
CONCENTRATED VS. DILUTED ACID
ACIDS AND BASES
LESSON 22: PH AND POH
 PH AND POH CALCULATIONS

• pH Can be defined as:

a measure of the relative amount of free hydrogen in the water.

Water that has more free hydrogen ions is acidic, whereas water
that has more free hydroxyl ions is basic.

Square brackets are a short form to

communicate concentration
 PH AND POH CALCULATIONS

Concentration of H3O+/H+ ions present determines whether a

solution is acidic, basic or neutral
Neutral [H3O] = 1x10-7 mol/L (pure water)
Acidic[H3O] > 1 x 10-7 mol/L
Basic [H3O] < 1 x 10-7 mol/L
 PH AND POH CALCULATIONS

• pH’s of substances are arranged on a scale from 1-14 where 7

is neutral, >7 is basic and < 7 is acidic
We can make estimates of what the pH or hydronium ion
concentration might be:
• Household ammonia pH = 12
• Vinegar pH = 2
• Grapefruit juice = [H3O+(aq)] = 10-3 mol/L
• soap = [H3O+(aq)] = 10-10 mol/L
 PH AND POH CALCULATIONS

• Changes in pH can be deceptive. Adding vinegar to pure

water might change the pH from 7 to 4. While the change of
3 pH units may not appear significant, the change in
hydronium ion concentration is 1000 time larger
• Logarithmic relationship means every change of one pH
unit = a 10x change in [H3O+(aq)]!!
 P H AND POH CALCULATIONS

pH = 7 [H3O+] = 10-7 = 0.0000001

X 10

pH = 6 [H3O+] = 10-6 = 0.000001 X 1000

X 10

pH = 5 [H3O+] = 10-5 = 0.00001

X 10

pH = 4 [H3O+] = 10-4 = 0.0001

 EXAMPLE

Solution A (pH of 4) vs. Solution B (pH of 6). Which one is

more acidic and by how much?

B: pH = 6 [H3O+] = 10-6

X 10
Solution A is
100 times
X 100 more acidic
- pH = 5 [H3O+] = 10-5 than solution
B
X 10

A: pH = 4 [H3O+] = 10-4
 PH AND POH CALCULATIONS

Calculating pH:
 P H AND POH CALCULATIONS

Rules for Sig Digs

The number of digits following the decimal point in the pH
value is equal to the number of sig digs in the hydronium ion
concentration

For pH only the units after the decimal count for

sig digs. Only for pH values.
H AND POH CALCULATIONS
P

Sig digs after the decimal

Normal sig dig rules

USING YOUR CALCULATOR

• Numbers in scientific notation

are best entered using the
exponent key (EE)
• The 10X is not recommended
because it may lead to
incorrect answers
 USING YOUR
CALCULATOR

• Calculate the hydronium ion

concentration when the pH is
5.3
1 sig dig
[H3O+] = 10-pH
[H3O+] = 10-5.3

[H3O+] = 5.0118… x 10-6

[H3O+] = 5 x 10-6
 HYDROXIDE CONCENTRATIONS

• pH is used more commonly, but sometimes it is more practical

to describe hydroxide ion concentrations
• The same format for pOH as pH
 PH VS POH SCALE
pH Scale

pH= 1 pH= 7 pH= 14

acidic basic

High [H3O+] Low [H3O+]

pOH Scale

pOH= 1 pOH= 7 pOH= 14

basic acidic

High [OH-] Low [OH-]

 SUMMARY

• The number of digits following the decimal point in a pH or

pOH value is equal to the number of sig digs in the ion
concentration
• The greater the hydronium ion concentration the lower the pH
is (inverse/indirect relationship)
[H3O+(aq)] x [OH-(aq)] = 1.00 x 10-14
pH + pOH = 14
 SUMMARY

1.0 x 10 -14

[H+] = 10-pH [OH-] = 10-pOH

 EXAMPLE

• 6.30g of HNO3(aq) is dissolved in 750mL of water. What is the

pH?
6.30 g HNO3 x ________________
mol x ________________
1 = 0.13329 mol/L
0.750 L HNO3
63.02 g

Ionization equation to HNO3(aq) → H+(aq) + NO3-(aq)

find [H+]: 0.13329… 0.13329… 0.13329…
mol/L mol/L mol/L

pH = -log[H+]

pH = -log(0.13329…mol/L)
pH = 0.875
 EXAMPLE

• What is the concentration of calcium hydroxide that gives a

pH of 12.45
Step 1: pH → pOH Step 3: [OH-] → [Ca(OH)2]

pOH = 14 – pH Ca(OH)2(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + 2 OH-(aq)

pOH = 14 – 12.45 0.014 mol/L 0.0281 mol/L

pOH = 1.55
0.0281/2
Step 2: pOH → [OH ] -

[OH-] = 10-pOH
[OH-] = 10-1.55
[OH-] = 0.0281 mol/L
 ACIDS AND BASES
L E S S O N 2 3 : A C I D / B A S E I N D I C AT O R S
 ACID-BASE INDICATORS

• Substances that change colour when the acidity of a solution

changes are known as acid-base indicators
• Most common  litmus paper or pH paper
• Paper is prepared by soaking absorbent paper with litmus solution and
drying it
 INDICATORS

• Acid base indicators are unique chemicals because they can

exist in two forms, each with a distinctly different color
• They can be dried onto paper: litmus paper and pH paper
• They can be solutions: bromothymol blue, phenolthalein
• They can be natural substances: tea, red cabbage juice, grape juice
 INDICATORS
• Each indicator has a specific pH range where it will change
color
• You can use two or more indicators to approximate the pH

red orange yellow

0 4.8 6.0 14
 e
d an
g
l l ow en l ue
re or e
ye gr b

1.2 2.8 8.0 9.6

 EXAMPLE

Find the pH range for Solution A when…

↓ 4.8

2.8 – 8.0

↓ 3.2

0 2.8 3.2 4.8 8.0 14

Solution A has a pH between 2.8 – 3.2

 ACIDS AND BASES
L E S S O N 2 4 : A C I D / B A S E S T O I C H A N D T I T R AT I O N S
 PRACTICE
In an experiment a 10.00mL sample of sulfuric acid solution reacts completely
with 15.9mL of 0.150mol/L potassium hydroxide. Calculate the amount
concentration of the sulfuric acid.
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN FOR ANALYSIS

• Experimental designs discussed so far have all been

QUALitative (flame test, solution colour, litmus test,
conductivity, solubility)
• QUANtitative experimental design allow measure amounts to
be obtained
• The experimental design chosen for analysis depends on
equipment, time available, and degree of accuracy required
 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

• There are four types of analytical experimental designs:

1. CRYSTALLIZATION – the solvent is vaporized from a solution,
with or without heating, leaving a solid behind which is measured
for mass
2. FILTRATION – a low solubility solid, produced from a single or
double replacement reaction is separated with a filter then dried so
mass can be measured
3. GAS COLLECTION – a gas, formed as a product of a reaction, is
collected and volume, pressure and temperature are measured
4. TITRATION – a solution in a burette (called the “titrant”) is
progressively added to a measured volume of another solution
(called the “sample”) in an Erlenmeyer flask. The volume of the
titrant at the end point is measured
 TITRATION

• Used to determine the amount concentration of

substances in solution
• The solution of the known concentration may be either the
titrant or the sample, it makes no difference

• Breakdown
• Carefully adding a solution (titrant) from a burette into a
measured, fixed volume of another solution (sample) in an
Erlenmeyer flask until the reaction is judged to be complete
 TITRATION

• Burette – a precisely marked glass cylinder with a stopcock at

one end. Allows precise, accurate measurement and control of
the volume of the reacting solution

• When doing a titration there will be a point at which the

reaction is complete; when chemically equivalent amounts of
reactants have combined. This is called the equivalence point
• The point during a titration at which the exact theoretical chemical
amount of titrant has been added to the sample (QUANTITATIVE)
• To measure the equivalence point experimentally we look for a
sudden change in an observable property such as, color, pH or
conductivity. This is called the endpoint (QUALITATIVE)
 STEPS

1. An initial reading of the burette is made before any

titrant is added to the sample
2. Then the titrant is added until the reaction is
complete; when the final drop of titrant permanently
changes the colour of the sample
3. The difference between the readings is the volume
of titrant added
• Near this endpoint, constant continuous swirling of the solution is important
 TITRATION

• A titration should involve several trials to improve reliability

of the answer
• A typical requirement is to repeat titrations until three trials
result in volumes that are within 0.2mL of each other
• These three results are then averaged before carrying out the
solution stoichiometry calculation; disregard any trial volumes
that do not fall in the range
 TITRATION TIPS
• Any property of a solution such as color, conductivity or pH, that changes
abruptly can be used as an endpoint. However, some changes may not be very
sharp or may be difficult to measure accurately
• This may introduce error into the experiment. Any difference between the titrant
volumes at the empirical (observed) endpoint and the theoretical equivalence point is
known as the titration error
• How to read the burette:
• Initial readings will always be lower than the final reading
• Take reading at the meniscus
• The first trial is typically done very quickly, allowing you to determine what the
endpoint looks like and the approximate volume of titrant needed
 EXAMPLE
•Titration of 10.00mL samples of HCl(aq) with 0.974mol/L Ba(OH)2(aq) using bromothymol blue as an
indicator. Calculate the concentration of HCl (aq)
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4
Final Buret 15.6 mL 29.3mL 43.0mL 14.8mL
Reading
Initial Buret 0.6mL 15.6mL 29.3mL 1.2mL
Reading
Volume of
Ba(OH)2
Color of blue green green green
endpoint
 EXAMPLE
•In an experiment to determine the concentration of vinegar in a sample, the following procedure
was followed. Several 10.00mL samples of vinegar were titrated with a standard 0.202mol/L solution
of NaOH(aq).Phenolphthalein indicator, which changes from colorless to pink at the endpoint of the
reaction, is used. The following data was collected. Calculate the concentration of vinegar.
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4
Final Buret 14.8mL 26.9mL 39.8mL 13.6mL
Reading
Initial Buret 0.7mL 13.9mL 26.9mL 0.5mL
Reading
Volume of NaOH
Color of Dark pink Light pink Light pink Light pink
endpoint
 CHALLENGE EXAMPLE

• Determine the concentration of hydrochloric acid in a commercial solution.

• A 1.59 mass of sodium carbonate, Na2CO3(aq), was dissolved to make 100.0mL of
solution. Samples (10.0mL) of this standard solution were then taken and titrated
with the hydrochloric acid solution.
• Titration results are shown below: Methyl orange indicator was used
 • First: determine the concentration of the 100.0mL of sodium carbonate
• Second: write a balanced chemical equation
• Use stoichiometry to determine concentration of HCl

A 1.59 mass of sodium carbonate, Na2CO3(aq), was dissolved to make 100.0mL of

solution. Samples (10.0mL) of this standard solution were then taken and titrated with the
hydrochloric acid solution.
 SUMMARY

• Titration is the technique of carefully controlling the addition of a

volume of a solution(the titrant) from a burette into a measured
fixed volume of a sample solution until the reaction is complete
• The concentration of one reactant must be accurately known
• The equivalence point is the point at which the exact theoretical
reacting amount of the titrant has been added to the sample
• The endpoint is the point during the titration at which a sudden
change of an observable property indicates that the reaction is
complete
• Several trials must be completed. When at least three trials result in
volumes that are within 0.2 of each other, those values are averaged
and used for the stoichiometry calculation
ACIDS AND BASES
L E S S O N 2 5 : T I T R AT I O N C U RV E
 ACID-BASE REACTIONS

• Normally invisible in solution

• Use of indicators makes it easy to titrate an acid-base reaction to an
observable endpoint
• The indicator will show a colour change when the reaction is complete
• A change in pH occurs when all of the acid or base in the titration flask
is neutralized by the base in the burette
• Phenolphthalein will turn clear when a base becomes more acidic
• Bromothymol Blue will turn blue when an acid becomes more basic
 TITRATION CURVES

• A titration curve is a graph of the pH (vertical axis) versus the

amount of the reagent progressively added to the original
sample
• As the equivalence point is approached, there is a rapid change
in the pH (colour)
• When a titration is done to create a pH curve, the addition of
titrant is not stopped at the endpoint, but is continued until a
large excess has been added

• What is happening??
 • The initial addition of the titrant
(in the above example = base)
to the acid does not produce large changes.
• This is relatively flat region of the pH curve is where a buffering action
occurs
• As the titration proceeds, and base is added, some of the acid is
reacted with the added base, but anywhere before the equivalence
point some excess acid will remain, so the pH will remain
relatively low
• Very near the equivalence point, a small excess of acid becomes a
small excess of base with the addition of a few more drops, so the
pH will abruptly change
• The equivalence point is the centre of this change, where the
curve is most vertical
 WHAT IS HAPPENING?
• Lets look at an acid base reaction

• NON IONIC: HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)  HOH(l) + NaCl(aq)

• TOTAL IONIC:

• NET IONIC:
•
This acid base reaction (between a strong base and a strong acid)
produces water
• Why is equivalence point 7??
• Water has a neutral pH of 7, and the spectator ions are
neutral, so a strong monoprotic acid-strong monoprotic
base titration must gave a pH of 7 at the equivalence point
• The equivalence point, pH=7 is ONLY for strong
acid-strong base reaction
• For every other acid base reaction, the equivalence
point solution will contain ions or molecules that are
not spectators – so titration curves must be done
empirically to determine the equivalence point
BRIEFLY, WHAT IS HAPPENING WITH OTHER
ACID BASE TITRATIONS
 CHOOSING AN INDICATOR

• Bromothymol blue? Alizarin Yellow? Thymol Blue?

 TITRATION SET-UP

An acid is titrated with a base

Source: Khan Academy

TELL ME EVERYTHING YOU KNOW ABOUT THIS
TITRATION…