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Acids and Bases, Salts]]

Recall:
Acids Alkalis (Soluble Bases)
– Sodium hydroxide, NaOH (Na+, OH– in 1:1 ratio)
Hydrochloric acid, HCl (H , Cl in 1:1 ratio)
+

Sulfuric acid, H2SO4 (H+, SO42– in 2:1 ratio) Potassium hydroxide, KOH (K+, OH– in 1:1 ratio)
Nitric acid, HNO3 (H+, NO3– in 1:1 ratio) Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 (Ca2+, OH– in 1:2 ratio)

Ethanoic acid, CH3COOH (H+, CH3COO– in 1:1 ratio)
Definition of an acid:
Acids are substances that produce hydrogen ions
(H+ ions) in solution.
- sour taste
- dissolve in water to form solutions that
conduct electricity via mobile ions
- turn blue litmus paper red
(no need the words ‘moist’ or ‘damp’ as the alkali
itself contains water. The word ‘moist’ or ‘damp’ is
needed when testing for acidic gases)
Both acids and alkalis can be corrosive at high concentrations.
Aqueous ammonia, NH3 (NH4+, OH–)
NH3(g) + H2O ⇌ NH4+ (aq) + OH–(aq)
Definition of an alkali:
Alkalis are substances that produce hydroxide ions
(OH- ions) in solution.
- taste bitter
- feel slippery and soapy
- dissolve in water to form solutions that
conduct electricity via mobile ions
- turn red litmus paper blue
(no need the words ‘moist’ or ‘damp’ as the alkali
itself contains water. The word ‘moist’ or ‘damp’ is
needed when testing for alkaline gases)

pH Indicators

pH 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
acidic neu- alkaline
tral
Methyl
orange

Litmus
paper

Litmus
solution

Universal
Indicator
The shades used above are approximate and can become paler/deeper depending on concentration of the
indicator. There will not be clear-cut boundaries between the colours as well.

Bases
Definition:
Bases are metal oxides and metal hydroxides that react with acids to
produce a salt and water.
Acids Alkalis (Soluble Bases) Insoluble Bases
Definition: Definition:
Acids are substances that Alkalis are substances that
produce hydrogen ions (H+ ions) produce hydroxide ions (OH-
in solution. ions) in solution.
Hydrochloric acid, HCl Sodium hydroxide, NaOH Most metallic oxides, e.g.
Sulfuric acid, H2SO4 Potassium hydroxide, KOH Magnesium oxide, MgO
Nitric acid, HNO3 Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 Calcium oxide, CaO
Zinc oxide, ZnO
Lead(II) oxide, PbO
etc
Ethanoic acid, CH3COOH Aqueous ammonia, NH3
Types of Oxides
Acidic Oxides
react with alkalis
to form salt and water
Acidic oxides dissolve in water
to form acids e.g. HNO3, H2SO4
Non-metal oxides e.g.
NS
Neutral Oxides
are neither acidic nor basic
“Non-metal (acidic) oxides
that are not acidic”
3 typical examples - “monoxides”
Carbon monoxide CO,
Nitric oxide (nitrogen monoxide) NO,
Water (dihydrogen monoxide), H2O
Strength of Acids
Strong Acids
Definition:
Strong acids are substances that
fully ionise/dissociate in solution
to produce hydrogen ions (H+
ions).
Hydrochloric acid, HCl
HCl(aq) → H+(aq)+Cl–(aq)
Sulfuric acid, H2SO4
H2SO4(aq) → 2H+(aq)+SO4–(aq)
Nitric acid, HNO3
HNO3(aq) → H+(aq)+NO3–(aq)
Weak Acids
Definition:
Weak acids are substances that
partially ionise/dissociate in
solution to produce hydrogen
ions (H+ ions).
Ethanoic acid, CH3COOH
CH3COOH(aq) ⇌ H+(aq)+CH3COO–(aq)
Basic Oxides
react with acids
to form salt and water
Soluble basic oxides dissolve in water to form alkalis
e.g. NaOH, KOH
Metal oxides e.g.
Sodium oxide, Na2O2
Potassium oxide, K2O
Amphoteric Oxides
react with both acids and alkalis
to form salt and water
“Metal (basic) oxides
that also react with alkalis”
3 typical examples - “LAZy”
Lead(II) oxide PbO,
Aluminium oxide Al2O3,
Zinc oxide, ZnO
Strong Alkalis
Definition:
Strong alkalis are substances
that fully ionise/dissociate in
solution to produce hydroxide
ions (OH- ions).
Sodium hydroxide, NaOH
NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq)+OH–(aq)
Potassium hydroxide, KOH
KOH(aq) → K+(aq)+OH–(aq)
Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2
Ca(OH)2(aq) → Ca2+(aq)+2OH–(aq)
Weak Alkalis
Definition:
Weak alkalis are substances that
partially ionise/dissociate in
solution to produce hydroxide
ions (OH- ions).
Aqueous ammonia, NH3
NH3(g)+H2O ⇌ NH4+(aq)+OH–(aq)
Basicity of Acids and Alkalis

Monobasic Acids Monobasic Alkalis

Definition: (not in syllabus)
Monobasic acids are substances Monobasic alkalis are
that produce hydrogen ions (H+ substances that produce
ions) in a 1:1 ratio. hydroxide ions (OH- ions) in a 1:1
ratio.
Hydrochloric acid, HCl Sodium hydroxide, NaOH
__HCl(aq) → __H+(aq)+Cl–(aq) __NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq)+__OH–(aq)
Nitric acid, HNO3 Potassium hydroxide, KOH
__HNO3(aq) → __H+(aq)+NO3–(aq) __KOH(aq) → K+(aq)+__OH–(aq)

Ratio of acid:H+ = 1:1 Ratio of alkali:OH- = 1:1

Dibasic Acids Dibasic Alkalis
Definition: (not in syllabus)
Dibasic acids are substances that Dibasic alkalis are substances
produce hydrogen ions (H+ ions) that produce hydroxide ions (OH-
in a 1:2 ratio. ions) in a 1:2 ratio.
Sulfuric acid, H2SO4 Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2
__H2SO4(aq) → 2H+(aq)+SO4–(aq) __Ca(OH)2(aq) → Ca2+(aq)+2OH–(aq)

Ratio of acid:H+ = 1:2 Ratio of alkali:OH- = 1:2

Reactions of Acids

Acids react with:

reactive metals metal carbonates bases

(metal oxides and
metal hydroxides)

acid+metal acid+metal carbonate acid+base/alkali

→salt+hydrogen gas →salt+water+carbon dioxide gas →salt+water

2HCl(aq) + Ca(s) → CaCl2(aq)+H2(g) 2HCl(aq)+CaCO3(s)→CaCl2(aq)+H2O 2HCl(aq)+CaO(s)→CaCl2(aq)+H2O

very reactive metal explosive reaction +CO2(g)

2HCl(aq) + Zn(s) → ZnCl2(aq)+H2(g) 2HCl(aq)+ZnCO3(s)→ZnCl2(aq)+H2O 2HCl(aq)+ZnO(s)→ZnCl2(aq)+H2O

+CO2(g)

2HCl(aq) + Pb(s) → PbCl2(s)+H2(g) 2HCl(aq) + PbCO3(s) → PbCl2(s)+H2O 2HCl(aq) + PbO(s) → PbCl2(s)+H2O

insoluble reactant insoluble salt insoluble reactant insoluble salt
reaction stops after a short while
+CO2(g)
insoluble reactant insoluble salt reaction stops after a short while
reaction stops after a short while

2HCl(aq) + Cu(s) → no reaction 2HCl(aq)+CuCO3(s)→CuCl2(aq)+H2O 2HCl(aq)+CuO(s)→CuCl2(aq)+H2O

unreactive metal +CO2(g)

2HCl(aq) + Ag(s) → no reaction 2HCl(aq)+Ag2CO3(s)→2AgCl(s)+H2O 2HCl(aq)+Ag2O(s)→2AgCl(s)+H2O

unreactive metal +CO2(g) insoluble reactant insoluble salt
insoluble reactant insoluble salt reaction stops after a short while
reaction stops after a short while

Considerations: Considerations: Considerations:

● Reactivity Series of Metals ● Solubility Rules ● Solubility Rules
● Solubility Rules
Forming equations for the reactions of acids:

HCl(aq) → Cl-(aq) + H+(aq) HCl(aq) → Cl-(aq) + H+(aq)

HCl(aq) → Cl-(aq) + H+(aq) HCl(aq) → Cl-(aq) + H+(aq)
Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e- Mg(s) → Mg2+(aq) + 2e-

2HCl(aq) + Zn(s) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g) 2HCl(aq) + Mg(s) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

HCl(aq) → Cl-(aq) + H+(aq) HCl(aq) → Cl-(aq) + H+(aq)

HCl(aq) → Cl-(aq) + H+(aq) HCl(aq) → Cl-(aq) + H+(aq)
ZnCO3(s) eventually forms Zn2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) Na2CO3(s) dissolves in water to form Na2CO3(aq)
ZnCO3 is insoluble in water. Na2CO3(aq) → 2Na+(aq) + CO32-(aq)
The aqueous ions are formed due to the acid-carbonate reaction.

2HCl(aq) + ZnCO3(s) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) 2HCl(aq) + Na2CO3(s) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

H2SO4(aq) → SO42-(aq) + 2H+(aq) H2SO4(aq) → SO42-(aq) + 2H+(aq)

ZnO(s) eventually forms Zn2+(aq) + O2-(aq) NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
ZnO is insoluble in water. NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
The aqueous ions are formed due to the acid-base reaction.

H2SO4(aq) + ZnO(s) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Forming IONIC equations for the reactions of acids:

2HCl(aq) + Zn(s) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g) 2HCl(aq) + Mg(s) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Working: Working:
H+(aq) Cl-(aq) Zn2+(aq) Cl-(aq) H+(aq) Cl-(aq) Mg2+(aq) Cl-(aq)
H+(aq) Cl-(aq) Cl-(aq) H+(aq) Cl-(aq) Cl-(aq)

Ionic equation: Ionic equation:

2H+(aq) + Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + H2(g) 2H+(aq) + Mg(s) → Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)

2HCl(aq) + ZnCO3(s) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) 2HCl(aq) + Na2CO3(s) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Working: Working:
H+(aq) Cl-(aq) Zn2+(aq) Cl-(aq) H+(aq) Cl-(aq) Na+(aq) Cl-(aq)
H+(aq) Cl-(aq) Cl-(aq) H+(aq) Cl-(aq) Na+(aq) Cl-(aq)

Ionic equation: Ionic equation:

2H+(aq) + ZnCO3(s) → Zn2+(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) 2H+(aq) + Na2CO3(s) → 2Na+(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

H2SO4(aq) + ZnO(s) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Working: Working:
H+(aq) SO42-(aq) Zn2+(aq) SO42-(aq) H+(aq) SO42-(aq) Na+(aq) SO42-(aq)
H+(aq) H+(aq) Na+(aq)
Na+(aq) OH-(aq)
Na+(aq) OH-(aq)

Ionic equation: 2H+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) → 2H2O(l)

2H+(aq) + ZnO(s) → Zn2+(aq) + H2O(l) Ionic equation (simplest ratio):
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O(l)
Reactions of Bases

Bases (metal oxides and metal hydroxides) react with ammonium salts to form a new salt, ammonia gas
and water.

base/alkali + ammonium salt → salt + ammonia gas + water

Forming equations for the reaction of bases/alkalis with ammonium salts:

NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) KOH(aq) → K+(aq) + OH-(aq)

NH4Cl(aq) → Cl-(aq) + NH4+(aq) NH4NO3(aq) → NO3-(aq) + NH4+(aq)

NaOH(aq) + NH4Cl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g) KOH(aq)+NH4NO3(aq) → KNO3(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g)

Slaked lime and quicklime are liming agents limewater

used by farmers to treat acidic soil. These metal Ca(OH)2(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
(NH4)2SO4(aq) → SO42-(aq) + 2NH4+(aq)
hydroxides / metal oxides are basic in nature and
will neutralise the acids in the soil, forming salt Ca(OH)2(aq)+(NH4)2SO4(aq) → CaSO4(aq)
and water. + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)

However, if liming agents and fertilisers Note:

containing ammonium salts are used at the
same time on soil, they will react together and:
1) the acidic soil will not be neutralised by the
liming agent.
2) the soil will not be fertilised as the escape of
ammonia gas also results in a loss of N(nitrogen)
from the fertiliser.
The term ‘lime’ is used to refer to calcium containing
compounds, e.g.
● CaO(s) is quicklime
● Ca(OH)2(aq) is limewater OR
slaked lime, Ca(OH)2(s)
● CaCO3(s) is limestone or limescale

slaked lime quicklime

Ca(OH)2(s) dissolves in water to form Ca(OH)2(aq) CaO(s) dissolves in water to form CaO(aq)

Ca(OH)2(s) → Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) CaO(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + O2-(aq)

NH4Cl(aq) → Cl-(aq) + NH4+(aq) NH4Cl(aq) → Cl-(aq) + NH4+(aq)
NH4Cl(aq) → Cl-(aq) + NH4+(aq) NH4Cl(aq) → Cl-(aq) + NH4+(aq)

Ca(OH)2(s) + 2NH4Cl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) CaO(s) + 2NH4Cl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)

+ 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)
Forming IONIC equations for the reactions of bases/alkalis with ammonium salts:

NaOH(aq) + NH4Cl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g) KOH(aq) + NH4NO3(aq) → KNO3(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g)

Working: Working:
Na+(aq) OH-(aq) Na+(aq) Cl-(aq) K+(aq) OH-(aq) K+(aq) NO3-(aq)
NH4+(aq) Cl-(aq) NH4+(aq) NO3-(aq)

Ionic equation: Ionic equation:

OH-(aq) + NH4+(aq) → H2O(l) + NH3(g) OH-(aq) + NH4+(aq) → H2O(l) + NH3(g)

Ca(OH)2(aq) + (NH4)2SO4(aq) → CaSO4(aq)

+ 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)

Working:
Ca2+(aq) OH-(aq) Ca2+(aq) SO42-(aq)
OH-(aq)
NH4 (aq) SO42-(aq)
+

NH4+(aq)

2OH-(aq) + 2NH4+(aq) → 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)

Ionic equation (simplest ratio):
OH-(aq) + NH4+(aq) → H2O(l) + NH3(g)

Ca(OH)2(s)+2NH4Cl(aq)→CaCl2(aq)+2H2O(l)+2NH3(g) CaO(s) + 2NH4Cl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)

Working: Working:
NH4+(aq) Cl-(aq) Ca2+(aq) Cl-(aq) NH4+(aq) Cl-(aq) Ca2+(aq) Cl-(aq)
NH4+(aq) Cl-(aq) Cl-(aq) NH4+(aq) Cl-(aq) Cl-(aq)

Ionic equation: Ionic equation:

Ca(OH)2(s) + 2NH4+(aq) → Ca2+(aq) +2H2O(l)+2NH3(g) CaO(s) + 2NH4+(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)
Definition of a salt:
A salt is an ionic compound that consists of a cation (positive ion) and an anion (negative ion).
Concept:
● A salt is formed from all the reactions of acids with other substances.
● The anion of the salt is from the acid.
The cation of the salt is from the reactant that reacts with the acid.
Salts Preparation Methods
Precipitation
To prepare insoluble salts
(AgCl,PbCl2,
AgBr,PbBr2,
AgI,PbI2,
BaSO4, CaSO4, PbSO4)
using a solution containing the
aqueous cation and a solution
containing the aqueous anion
Rough description (not
procedure; see textbook for
detailed procedure):
Mix a solution containing the
salt’s anion* with a solution
containing the salt’s cation to
prepare an insoluble salt.
*easiest choice:
sodium or potassium cation with
the salt’s anion (or can use the
acid with the salt’s anion)
*easiest choice:
nitrate anion with the salt’s cation
Filter to obtain the salt as
residue.
Wash with distilled water and pat
dry between pieces of filter
paper.
Excess Insoluble Reactant
Soluble salts (not Group 1 or
ammonium salts) using
acid-reactive metal reaction OR
acid-metal carbonate* reaction
acid-metal oxide* reaction
*metal carbonate and metal oxide must
be insoluble so that they can be
removed as residue using filtration
Rough description (not
procedure; see textbook for
detailed procedure):
Add excess insoluble reactant
to acid that contains the salt’s
anion to prepare a soluble salt.
The acid is used up in the
reaction.
Filter to obtain the salt solution
as filtrate.
Heat the filtrate to saturation.
Allow to cool. Crystals will form.
Filter to obtain crystals of the
salt as residue. Wash the
crystals with cold distilled water
and pat dry between pieces of
filter paper.
Titration
To prepare Group 1 and
ammonium soluble salts using
acid-alkali reaction
Alkalis:
● NaOH
● KOH
● NH3(aq)
Rough description (not
procedure; see textbook for
detailed procedure):
Use titration with methyl orange
indicator to determine the exact
volumes of alkali containing the
salt’s cation needed to react
with 25.0 cm3 of acid that
contains the salt’s anion to
prepare a soluble salt.
Repeat the titration without
indicator to obtain a largely pure
salt solution.
Heat the solution to saturation.
Allow to cool. Crystals will form.
Filter to obtain crystals of the
salt as residue. Wash the
crystals with cold distilled water
and pat dry between pieces of
filter paper.
Forming IONIC equations for precipitation reactions:

NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) → AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + Ba(NO3)2(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

Working: Working:
Na+(aq) Cl-(aq) Na+(aq) NO3-(aq) Na+(aq) SO42-(aq) Na+(aq) NO3-(aq)
Ag+(aq) NO3-(aq) Na+(aq) Na+(aq) NO3-(aq)
Ba2+(aq) NO3-(aq)
NO3-(aq)

Ionic equation: Ionic equation:

Cl-(aq) + Ag+(aq) → AgCl(s) SO42-(aq) + Ba2+(aq) → BaSO4(s)

2KCl(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → PbCl2(s) + 2KNO3(aq) K2SO4(aq) + Ca(NO3)2(aq) → CaSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

Working: Working:
K+(aq) Cl-(aq) K+(aq) NO3-(aq) K+(aq) SO42-(aq) Na+(aq) NO3-(aq)
K+(aq) Cl-(aq) K+(aq) NO3-(aq) K+(aq) Na+(aq) NO3-(aq)
Pb2+(aq) NO3-(aq) Ca2+(aq) NO3-(aq)
NO3-(aq) NO3-(aq)

Ionic equation: Ionic equation:

2Cl-(aq) + Pb2+(aq) → PbCl2(s) SO42-(aq) + Ca2+(aq) → CaSO4(s)

Acids MUST be used as the source for the salt’s H2SO4(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → PbSO4(s) + 2HNO3(aq)
anions for:
● “Excess Insoluble Reactant” method Working:
because it makes use of the acid-metal, H+(aq) SO42-(aq) H+(aq) NO3-(aq)
acid-metal carbonate or acid-metal oxide H+(aq) H+(aq) NO3-(aq)
reactions. Pb2+(aq) NO3-(aq)
● “Titration” method NO3-(aq)
because there must be a change in pH to
signal when the reactants are added in
stoichiometric proportions (exact mole ratio).
This change in pH will be indicated by the
indicator’s colour change.

For “Precipitation” method, the source of the salt’s Ionic equation:

anions can be an acid but it is not a must. It can also SO42-(aq) + Pb2+(aq) → PbSO4(s)
be another aqueous salt.