Chem - Acids and Bases and Ionic Equations

Acids and Bases, Ionic Equations
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Learning Outcomes
1. Define acids and alkalis in terms of the ions they produce in aqueous solution and their effects on indicators.
2. Describe the characteristic properties of acids in reactions with metals, bases and carbonates.
3. State some uses of acids including sulfuric acid.
4. Describe the characteristic properties of bases in reactions with acids, metal ions and ammonium compounds.
5. Describe neutralisation as the reaction between hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions to produce water.
6. Describe applications of neutralisation in daily life including the importance of controlling pH in soils and how excess
acidity in soils can be treated using calcium hydroxide.
7. Describe the difference between strong and weak acids and alkalis in terms of the extent of ionisation.
8. Describe the pH scale as a measure of relative acidity and alkalinity.
9. Classify oxides as acidic, basic, amphoteric or neutral based on metallic/ non-metallic character.
10. Write ionic equations.
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1. What is an Acid?
 An acid is a substance which produces hydrogen ions (H+) when it is dissolved in water.
Table 1.1 Common mineral and organic acids

Mineral Acids
(made from chemical compounds mined from Chemical formula
earth)
Hydrochloric acid HCl
Nitric acid HNO3
Sulfuric acid H2SO4
Sulfurous acid H2SO3
Carbonic acid H2CO3
Phosphoric acid H3PO4
Organic Acids (from plants and animals) Chemical formula
Methanoic acid (formic acid, found in bites of ants) HCOOH
Ethanoic acid (acetic acid, found in vinegar) CH3COOH
Tartaric acid (found in grapes) HOOCCH2CH(OH)COOH
Malic acid (found in apples) HOOCCH(OH)CH(OH)COOH
Citric acid (found in oranges, lemons) HOOCCH2C(OH)(COOH)CH2COOH
Oxalic acid (found in broccoli) HOOCCOOH
2. Properties of (Dilute) Acids
(1) Acids have a sour taste.
(2) Acids have pH less than 7 (at 25 oC) and thus turn blue litmus paper red and Universal
Indicator orange or red.
Figure 2.1 Blue litmus paper turns red in the presence of an acid
(3) Most dilute acids react with metals to give a salt and hydrogen gas, e.g.,
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq)  MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) A salt is an ionic compound formed by

replacing one or more hydrogen ions
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq)  MgSO4(aq) + H2(g) of an acid with a metallic ion (e.g.,
Na+, K+) or an ammonium ion (NH4+).

The hydrogen gas evolved can be detected by testing the gas with a lighted splint.
Hydrogen extinguishes a lighted splint with a 'pop' sound.
Figure 2.2 Test for hydrogen gas
Enrichment: Additional Reactions

Not all metals will react with dilute acids. Less reactive metals like copper and silver do not react
with dilute sulfuric acid or dilute hydrochloric acid.
Nitric acid (HNO3), on the other hand, reacts with most metals except precious metals such as silver
and gold. The products of the reaction also depends on the concentration of the acid, the
temperature and the metal. Due to the oxidising nature of nitric acid, most metals react with
concentrated nitric acid to give a salt, water and nitrogen dioxide.
Cu(s) + 4HNO3(aq)  Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NO2(g)
Only magnesium and calcium react with cold, dilute nitric acid to give hydrogen gas.
Mg(s) + 2HNO3(aq)  Mg(NO3)2(aq) + H2(g)

Lead and Acid?

Lead seemingly appears to not react with either dilute hydrochloric acid or dilute sulfuric acid. Why?
This is due to the layer of lead(II) chloride or lead(II) sulfate that forms on the surface of the lead
metal during its reaction with the respective acids. This layer is impervious to water and thus
prevents the lead below from further reactions.
Figure 2.3 Reaction of lead and dilute acids
(4) Acids react with carbonates and hydrogencarbonates to give a salt, water and carbon
dioxide gas.
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq)  CaCl2 + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
2NaHCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq)  Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2CO2(g)
The carbon dioxide gas evolved can be detected by bubbling the gas through limewater. A
white precipitate forms in limewater.
Figure 2.4 Using limewater to detect carbon dioxide
(5) Acids react with metal oxides and hydroxides to give a salt and water.
CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq)  CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

(6) Dilute acids can conduct electricity due to the present of mobile charge carriers, i.e., ions.
HCl(aq)  H+(aq) + Cl(aq)
H2SO4(aq)  2H+(aq) + SO42(aq)
these ions act as mobile

charge carriers
3. Importance of Water for An Acid's Properties
Vitamin C Effervescent Tablets

Effervescent tablets come in solid form, but when dropped into a glass
of water, quickly fizzes and dissolves.
These tablets contain solid citric acid and a carbonate compound. In solid
tablet form, there is no water present and the tablet does not 'disappear'.
When exposed to water, the solid citric acid dissolves, and dissociates
(ionises) to release hydrogen ions. These hydrogen ions give the acid its
properties. The aqueous citric acid quickly reacts with the carbonate in
the tablet, producing the effervescence that is observed, and the tablet
quickly dissolves.
Figure 3.1 Effervescent tablets
 An acid does not behave as an acid unless water is present. Water is required for
______________________________________________
Table 3.1 Acid and the importance of water

HCl in methylbenzene, an
Test HCl in water
organic solvent
Dry blue litmus paper Turns red Remains blue
Electrical conductivity Able to conduct electricity Unable to conduct electricity
Adding magnesium ribbon Effervescence observed No visible reaction
with the evolution of
hydrogen gas
Adding copper(II) oxide, heating A blue solution formed No visible reaction
Adding calcium carbonate Effervescence observed No visible reaction
with the evolution of
carbon dioxide gas

 Pure acids (in the absence of water) consists of small covalent molecules. In the presence of
water, the _______________________________. This process is known as ionisation. We can
also say that the acid has dissociated when dissolved in water to form ions.
water
hydroxonium ion, often
HCl(g)  HCl(aq)
simplified and called
hydrogen ion
HCl (aq) + H2O(l)  H3O+(aq) + Cl(aq)
water
Simplified to: HCl(aq)  H+(aq) + Cl(aq)
 Similarly,
water
H2SO4(aq)  2H+(aq) + SO42(aq)
water
HNO3(aq)  H+(aq) + NO3(aq)
 Dissolving HCl in an organic solvent (such as methylbenzene) does not result in the acid
ionising; the acid remains as molecules.
methylbenzene
HCl(g) HCl(l)
Checkpoint 1
1. List 3 properties of an acid
2. Write equations to show the reaction of dilute hydrochloric acid with (a) sodium carbonate
(Na2CO3), and (b) lithium.

3. Write equations to show the reaction of dilute sulfuric acid with (a) potassium carbonate, (b)
magnesium, and (c) sodium oxide.
4. Basicity of an Acid
 Basicity (or proticity) of an acid refers to the _________________________________________

____________________________________ that can be replaced by a metal.
 Basicity of an acid also refers to the maximum number of hydrogen ions that can be
produced by a molecule of an acid.
Table 4.1 Basicity of some common acids

Type of acid Example(s)
Monobasic (monoprotic) HCl, HNO3
Dibasic (diprotic) H2SO4, H2SO3, H2CO3, H3PO3
Tribasic (triprotic) H3PO4
Checkpoint 2
Write chemical equations (with state symbols) to show the dissociation of a monobasic acid, a
dibasic acid and a tribasic acid.
Monobasic
Dibasic
Tribasic

5. Strength of an Acid and the Difference between Concentration and Strength
5.1 Strength of an Acid
 A strong acid is one that is fully dissociated (ionised) in water, e.g., mineral acids such as
dilute hydrochloric acid.
HCl(g)  H+(aq) + Cl(aq)
 A weak acid is one that is partially dissociated (ionised) in water, e.g., organic acids such
as ethanoic acid.
CH3COOH(aq) Ý CH3COO(aq) + H+(aq)
Figure 5.1.1 Comparing a strong and a weak acid
 Interpretation of Figure 5.1.1

- A solution of dilute hydrochloric acid contains H+, Cl and water molecules. All the HCl
molecules have fully dissociated.
- A solution of dilute ethanoic acid contains a small amount of H+, a small amount of
CH3COO, CH3COOH molecules, and water molecules. The CH3COOH molecules remain
largely undissociated.
 Strong acids react ________________________ than weak acids in the same reactions, e.g.,
a large volume of
hydrogen gas is
produced very quickly
Figure 5.1.2 Reaction of a strong and weak acid with magnesium

5.2 Concentration of an Acid
 Concentration refers to the amount of acid per unit volume of a solution, and has the units of
g/dm3 (or g dm-3) or mol/dm3 (or mol dm-3).
 The strength of an acid does not have the same meaning as concentration, i.e., a weak acid is
not a dilute acid, nor a strong acid a concentrated acid.
Table 5.2.1 Concentration vs strength of acids

Acid Concentration Remarks
Hydrochloric acid 10 mol dm -3 Concentrated solution of a strong acid
Hydrochloric acid 0.01 mol dm -3 Dilute solution of a strong acid
Ethanoic acid 10 mol dm -3 Concentrated solution of a weak acid
Ethanoic acid 0.01 mol dm-3 Dilute solution of a weak acid
6. Uses of Acids
 Food stuffs - carbonic acid in fizzy drinks, acetic acid in vinegar, citric acid in fruit juices.
 Car batteries - sulfuric acid.
 Manufacture of soaps and detergents - sulfuric acid.
 Manufacture of fertilisers and explosives - sulfuric acid & nitric acid.
 Cleaning metal surfaces before they are coated - hydrochloric acid.
 Rust inhibitor - phosphoric acid.
7. Acids and the Environment
 Factories burning coal releases sulfur dioxide gas, SO2.
 Burning of petrol in car engines produces oxides of nitrogen, e.g., NO2.
 These pollutant gases dissolve in rainwater to form acidic solutions.
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) dissolves in rainwater to form sulfurous acid (H2SO3).
SO2 + H2O  H2SO3
In the presence of oxygen, sulfur dioxide can be converted into sulfur trioxide (SO3) which
dissolves in water to form sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
2SO2 + O2  2SO3
SO3 + H2O  H2SO4

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) dissolves in water to form a mixture of nitrous acid (HNO2) and nitric acid
(HNO3).
2NO2 + H2O  HNO2 + HNO3
 Even in the absence of these pollutant gases, rainwater is slightly acidic due to the presence of
carbonic acid (a weak acid), formed from carbon dioxide dissolving in rainwater.
 CO2 + H2O  H2CO3 Ý 2H+ + CO32-
 Effects of acid rain includes:

- Acid rain falling on lakes kills fish and other aquatic animals.
- Acid rain falling on buildings and stone works can erode these structures.
- Acid rain falling on soil causes soil to become acidic and essential mineral salts e.g.
potassium ions, calcium ions and aluminium ions are washed away.
8. What are Bases and Alkalis?
 Bases are the oxides or hydroxides of metals.
Table 8.1 Bases

Chemical Name Chemical Formula
Magnesium oxide MgO
Copper(II) oxide CuO
Zinc oxide ZnO
Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2
Aluminium hydroxide Al(OH)3
 Bases which are soluble in water are known as alkalis.
 An alkali is a soluble base which produces hydroxide (OH) ions in water.
Table 8.2 Soluble bases and alkalis

Type Chemical Name Chemical Formula Reaction with Water
Base Sodium oxide Na2O Na2O(s) + H2O(l)  2NaOH(aq)
NaOH(aq)  Na+(aq) + OH(aq)
Base Potassium oxide K2O K2O(s) + H2O(l)  2KOH(aq)
KOH(aq)  K+(aq) + OH(aq)
Base Calcium oxide CaO CaO(s) + H2O(l)  Ca(OH)2(aq)
(quicklime) Ca(OH)2(aq)  Ca2+(aq) + 2OH(aq)
Alkali Aqueous ammonia NH3(aq) NH3(g) + H2O(l) Ý NH4+(aq) + OH(aq)
Alkali Sodium hydroxide NaOH NaOH(aq)  Na+(aq) + OH(aq)
Alkali Potassium hydroxide KOH KOH(aq)  K+(aq) + OH(aq)
Alkali Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 Ca(OH)2(aq)  Ca2+(aq) + 2OH(aq)

9. Properties of Alkalis
(1) Alkalis have a bitter taste and feel slippery/ soapy.
(2) Alkalis have a pH greater than 7 (at 25 oC) and turn red litmus paper blue and turn
Universal Indicator blue or violet.
Figure 9.1 Red litmus turns blue when in contact with an alkali
(3) Alkalis can conduct electric current due to the presence of mobile charge carriers, i.e.,
ions.
(4) Alkalis react with acids to form salt and water only. The reaction is known as
neutralisation.
KOH(aq) + HCl(aq)  KCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Special case: NH3(aq) + HCl(aq)  NH4Cl(aq)
The neutralisation reaction can also be represented by the following ionic equation:
H+(aq) + OH(aq)  H2O(l)
(5) Alkalis react with ammonium compounds on heating to give a salt, water and ammonia
gas.
Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2NH4Cl(s)  CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)
(6) Alkalis will precipitate insoluble metal hydroxides when added to solutions of salts of
many metals. The reaction is known as a precipitation reaction.
CuSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq)  Cu(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)
blue copper(II) hydroxide is precipitated
FeCl3(aq) + 3NH3(aq) + 3H2O(l)  Fe(OH)3(s) + 3NH4Cl(aq)
red-brown iron(III) hydroxide is precipitated

Checkpoint 3
1. List 3 properties of an alkali.
2. Write chemical equations (with state symbols) to show the reaction of aqueous sodium
hydroxide with (a) dilute hydrochloric acid, and (b) solid ammonium chloride with heating.
3. Precipitates are formed when the following solutions are mixed. Write a chemical equation wiith
state symbols for each of these reactions.
a) aqueous iron(II) nitrate + aqueous sodium hydroxide
b) aqueous zinc(II) chloride + aqueous sodium hydroxide
c) aqueous iron(III) sulfate + aqueous potassium hydroxide

10. Basicity of a Base
 Basicity (or proticity) of a base refers to the number of moles of hydrogen ions that is required to
react with one mole of a base.
Table 10.1 Types of bases

Type of Base Example(s)
Monobasic (monoprotic) NaOH, KOH
Dibasic (diprotic) Ca(OH)2, Mg(OH)2
Tribasic (triprotic) Al(OH)3
Checkpoint 4
Write an equation to show the dissociation of the dibasic base, calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2.
11. Strength of an Alkali
 A strong alkali undergoes complete dissociation (or ionisation) to form hydroxide ions, OH,
in water, e.g., NaOH and KOH.
NaOH(aq)  Na+(aq) + OH(aq)
KOH(aq)  K+(aq) + OH(aq)
 A weak alkali dissolves in water to form a small amount of hydroxide ions, e.g., ammonia.
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) Ý NH4+(aq) + OH(aq)
12. Uses of Bases and Alkalis
 Cleaning fluids e.g., degreasing agents - aqueous ammonia, sodium hydroxide.
 Manufacture of fertilisers - aqueous ammonia.
 Reduce acidity in soil - calcium oxide, calcium hydroxide, in a process known as liming.
 Manufacture of cement, mortar, concrete - calcium oxide.
 Antacid indigestion tablet - magnesium hydroxide.
 Manufacture of soap - sodium hydroxide.


Checkpoint 5
1. Which of the beakers shown below represents a concentrated solution of a weak acid.
2. In which of the following reactions is dilute nitric acid not behaving as an acid?
A. Mg + 2HNO3  Mg(NO3)2 + H2
B. Fe(OH)2 + 2HNO3  Fe(NO3)3 + 3H2O
C. ZnCO3 + 2HNO3  Zn(NO3)2 + CO2 + H2O
D. 3Cu + 8HNO3  3Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O
3. In which of the following reactions is the metal oxide not behaving as a base?
A. MnO2 + 4HCl  MnCl2 + Cl2 + 2H2O

B. Al2O3 + 6HNO3  2Al(NO3)3 + 3H2O
C. MgO + 2NH4Cl  MgCl2 + 2NH3 + H2O
D. CuO + (NH4)2SO4  CuSO4 + 2NH3 + H2O
13. Indicators and the pH Scale
 An indicator is a substance that has different colours in acidic and alkaline solutions, e.g.,
litmus, phenolphthalein, methyl orange, universal indicator.

Figure 13.1 Common indicators
 pH is a measure of the acidity of an acid or the basicity of an alkali. It is measured when a

substance is dissolved in water.
 pH stands for 'power of the the hydrogen ion', or mathematically, pH = -log [H+].
 At 25 oC, a neutral solution has a pH of exactly 7.
acidic neutral alkaline

very acidic slightly acidic slightly alkaline very alkaline
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

[H ] > [OH ]
+ [H+] = [OH] [H ] < [OH]
+
 Different indicators change colour at different pH values.
pH at which
Colour in strongly Colour in strongly
Indicator indicator
acidic solution alkaline solution
changes colour
Litmus Red 7 Blue
Methyl orange Red 3.7 Yellow
Screened methyl orange Red 4 Green
Phenolphthalein Colourless 9.3 Pink
Bromothymol blue Yellow 7 Blue
 pH of a solution can be measured by the following methods:
(1) Using Universal Indicator - it is a mixture of several dyes which gives different colours in
solutions of different pH. Universal indicator only gives an approximate pH value.

pH 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
colour red orange yellow green blue purple
(2) Using a pH meter - this is an electrical meter which can be used to obtain a more accurate
pH value.
Figure 13.2 pH meter
(3) Using a pH sensor connected to a computer - the data collected on the pH will be sent to the
computer. This is useful to monitor reactions where the pH will change as the reaction
proceeds.
 pH of some common substances are as follows:
Figure 13.3 pH of some common substances

14. Importance of pH
 pH and the body
- The stomach produces hydrochloric acid to provide an acidic medium for the stomach
enzymes to function.
- Alkaline conditions in the small intestine allows a different group of enzymes to function.
- Blood is at a pH of between 7.35 to 7.45, with this narrow range regulated by various
buffering mechanisms.
 pH and food preservation
- Micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi cannot grow well in solutions of low pH. Hence,
acids can be used to preserve foods:
a) Ethanoic acid (vinegar) - used to preserve vegetables.
b) Benzoic acid - used in fruit juices, oyster sauce, jams.
c) Citric acid - used in fruit juices, jams as both a preservative and flavouring.
 pH and plant growth
- pH of soil is important for good plant growth.

- The pH of soil varies accordingly to the type of soil.
Type of soil pH
Peat 4.0
Clay 6.0
Loam 6.5
Sand 7.0
- The pH of soil affects the way plants absorb nutrients from the soil.
- As pH of soil affects the growth and development of plants, it is important for us to monitor
and control the pH of soils.
- Plants differ in their pH preference. Some plants grow best in acidic soils while others grow
best in alkaline soils.
- Most plants grow best in neutral or slightly acidic conditions.
- Soils that are too acidic can be treated with bases such as quicklime or lime (calcium oxide,
CaO) or slaked lime (calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2). This method of treatment is known as
‘liming’
- Soils that are too alkaline can be treated with ammonium sulfate, (NH4)2SO4. Ammonium
sulfate produces H+ ions when added to water. The H+ ions remove the excess alkali from
the soil.
 pH and hair
- Normal hair is weakly acidic with a pH of about 5. Alkaline solutions (e.g., shampoos)
makes hair dull and weaker, and using weakly acidic solutions (e.g., hair conditioners)
reverses these changes.

15. Neutralisation
 The reaction of an acid and an alkali (or base) to form a _____________________________

is called neutralisation, e.g.,
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
salt
 Recall: A salt is an ionic compound formed by replacing one or more hydrogen ions of an acid
with a metallic ion (e.g., Na+, K+) or an ammonium ion (NH4+).
 The neutralisation reaction can also be represented as the reaction between the hydrogen ions
from the acid with the hydroxide ions from the alkali:
H+(aq) + OH(aq)  H2O(l)
 Neutralisation is an exothermic reaction. An exothermic reaction is one in which heat is

released into the surroundings. Hence, the reaction mixture will feel warm to the touch.
16. Everyday Neutralisation Reactions
 Indigestion - Hydrochloric acid is present in the stomach. Too much of it may result in a
stomach upset which can be painful. The excess acid may be neutralised with indigestion
tablets which contain a base such as magnesium hydroxide or aluminium hydroxide.
 Insect Stings - When a bee stings, it injects an acidic liquid into the skin. The sting can be
neutralised by rubbing with calamine lotion which contains zinc carbonate (or neutralised by
baking soda, sodium hydrogencarbonate). On the other hand, wasp stings are alkaline and can
be neutralised by vinegar which contains ethanoic acid.
 Fighting Tooth Decay - Bacteria act on the sugar from food particles that trapped between the
teeth to produce acids which attack the teeth to cause tooth decay. Toothpaste contains
aluminium hydroxide which is alkaline and will neutralise the acids produce in the mouth.
 Cleaning - Brass and bronze ornaments can be cleaned by rubbing them with a piece of lemon.
The citric acid present in the lemon juice reacts with the copper(II) oxide to form copper(II)
citrate and water. This can be easily removed with a damp cloth.
 Hair conditioners - Shampoos contain weak alkalis that cause small scales on the hair to open
out and become less manageable. Conditioners contain weak acids that neutralises the alkali
and cause the scales to close up.
 Factory waste - Factory effluent is often acidic and can result in pollution of nearby streams and
rivers. Such effluent is neutralised by liming it first before discharging it into the sewers.

17. Oxides
17.1 Acidic Oxides
 Acidic oxides are the oxides of non-metals. If they dissolve in water, they will form acids,
e.g.,
Table 17.1.1 Some common acidic oxides

Acidic Oxide Formula Acid Produced in Water Equation
Carbon dioxide CO2 Carbonic acid, H2CO3 CO2 + H2O Ý H2CO3
Nitrogen dioxide NO2 Nitric acid, HNO3 NO2 + H2O  HNO3
Sulfur dioxide SO2 Sulfurous acid, H2SO3 SO2 + H2O  H2SO3
Sulfur trioxide SO3 Sulfuric acid, H2SO4 SO3 + H2O  H2SO4
Phosphorus(V) oxide P4O10 Phosphoric acid, H3PO4 P4O10 + 6H2O  4H3PO4
Silicon dioxide SiO2 Nil (oxide is insoluble in -
water)
 Acidic oxides react with alkalis to form salt and water only, e.g.,
SO2(g) + 2NaOH(aq)  Na2SO3(aq) + H2O(l)

SO3(g) + 2NaOH(aq)  Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)
CO2(g) + 2NaOH(aq)  Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
17.2 Basic Oxides
 Basic oxides are oxides of metals. Most basic oxides are insoluble in water, while those that
dissolve in water form alkalis.
Table 17.2.1 Some common basic oxides

Basic Oxide Formula Alkali produced in water Equation
Sodium oxide Na2O Sodium hydroxide, NaOH Na2O + 2H2O  2NaOH
Potassium oxide K2O Potassium hydroxide, KOH K2O + 2H2O  2KOH
Calcium oxide CaO Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 CaO + H2O  Ca(OH)2
Copper(II) oxide CuO Nil (oxide is insoluble in -
water)
Magnesium oxide MgO Nil (oxide is insoluble in -
water)
 Basic oxides (even insoluble oxides) react with acids to form salt and water only. This
reaction is also known as neutralisation.
CaO(s) + 2HCl(aq)  CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
soluble oxide

CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq)  CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
insoluble oxide
17.3 Amphoteric Oxides
 These are metallic oxides which can behave as an _________________________________.

They react with both acids and bases, to form a salt and water.
Table 17.3.1 Some common amphoteric oxides

Amphoteric oxide Formula Equation
Zinc oxide ZnO With acid: ZnO + H+  Zn2+ + H2O
With base: ZnO + OH + H2O  [Zn(OH)4]2
Lead(II) oxide PbO With acid: PbO + H+  Pb2+ + H2O
With base: PbO + OH + H2O  [Pb(OH)4]2
Aluminium oxide Al2O3 With acid: Al2O3 + H+  Al3+ + H2O
With base: Al2O3 + OH  [Al(OH)4]
Checkpoint 6
1. Write chemical equations to show the reaction of aluminium oxide with dilute hydrochloric acid.
2. Write a chemical equation to show the reaction of sulfur trioxide with water.
3. Write a chemical equation to show the reaction of phosphorus(V) oxide with water.

17.4 Neutral Oxides
 Neutral oxides are non-metallic ozides that exhibit neither ___________________________

They do not react with either acids or bases.
Table 17.4.1 Some common neutral oxides

Neutral oxide Formula
Water H2O
Carbon monoxide CO
Nitrogen monoxide NO
18. Writing Ionic Equations
 Recall: A chemical equation illustrates a chemical reaction.
 An ionic equation is an equation involving ions in an aqueous solution. It lets us know which are
the reacting species in the reaction, and which are the spectator species, e.g.,
Chemical equation: NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Ionic equation: OH(aq) + H+(aq)  H2O(l)
 An ionic equation is derived with the following steps:
Step 1: Write the chemical equation, e.g., reaction of aqueous sodium hydroxide with dilute
hydrochloric acid.
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Step 2: 'Ionise' all the aqueous species (i.e., those that can dissolve in water) into ions. We
do this because when, for example, NaOH(s) dissolves in water, it breaks down into
Na+ and OH ions.
Solids, liquids and gases are written in full.
Na+(aq) + OH(aq) + H+(aq) + Cl(aq)  Na+(aq) + Cl(aq) + H2O(l)
Step 3: Cancel out the 'like' ions on both sides of the equation. They are 'like' because they
have not participated in the reaction. We call these spectator ions.
Na+(aq) + OH(aq) + H+(aq) + Cl(aq)  Na+(aq) + Cl(aq) + H2O(l)
Step 4: This leaves us with the following equation, comprising the ions on the LHS. This is
the ionic equation. We see that the hydroxide ion and the hydrogen ion reacts to form
water. State symbols must always be included with ionic equations.
OH(aq) + H+(aq)  H2O(l)


 To allow us to write ionic equations properly, we will need to know which compounds can
dissolve in water.
Table 18.1 Solubility table

Compounds Remarks
Na+, K+, NH4+ compounds All are soluble
Nitrates (NO3) All are soluble
Chlorides (Cl) All are soluble except AgCl, PbCl2 memorise!
Sulfates (SO42) All are soluble except PbSO4, BaSO4, CaSO4
Carbonates (CO32) All are insoluble except those of Na+, K+, NH4+
Lead(II) compounds All are insoluble except Pb(NO3)2
Checkpoint 7
1. Write (i) chemical equations, and (ii) ionic equations, for the following reactions:
a) magnesium reacting with dilute hydrochloric acid
b) solid sodium carbonate reacting with dilute hydrochloric acid
c) aqueous calcium hydroxide reacting with dilute sulfuric acid

d) solid copper(II) oxide and dilute sulfuric acid
e) aqueous copper(II) sulfate and aqueous sodium hydroxide [Note: copper(II) hydroxide is
insoluble in water]
f) zinc reacting with aqueous copper(II) sulfate to give zinc sulfate and copper

Chem - Acids and Bases and Ionic Equations

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Acids and Bases, Ionic Equations

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Acids and Bases, Ionic Equations

small intestine: pH 6-7.4

Table 1.1 Common mineral and organic acids

2. Properties of (Dilute) Acids

(1) Acids have a sour taste.

Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq)  MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) A salt is an ionic compound formed by

Figure 2.2 Test for hydrogen gas

Enrichment: Additional Reactions

Cu(s) + 4HNO3(aq)  Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NO2(g)

Mg(s) + 2HNO3(aq)  Mg(NO3)2(aq) + H2(g)

Lead and Acid?

Figure 2.3 Reaction of lead and dilute acids

CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq)  CaCl2 + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

2NaHCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq)  Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2CO2(g)

Figure 2.4 Using limewater to detect carbon dioxide

CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq)  CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

HCl(aq)  H+(aq) + Cl(aq)

H2SO4(aq)  2H+(aq) + SO42(aq)

these ions act as mobile

3. Importance of Water for An Acid's Properties

Vitamin C Effervescent Tablets

Figure 3.1 Effervescent tablets

Table 3.1 Acid and the importance of water

1. List 3 properties of an acid

 Basicity (or proticity) of an acid refers to the _________________________________________

Table 4.1 Basicity of some common acids

5. Strength of an Acid and the Difference between Concentration and Strength

5.1 Strength of an Acid

HCl(g)  H+(aq) + Cl(aq)

CH3COOH(aq) Ý CH3COO(aq) + H+(aq)

Figure 5.1.1 Comparing a strong and a weak acid

 Interpretation of Figure 5.1.1

Figure 5.1.2 Reaction of a strong and weak acid with magnesium

5.2 Concentration of an Acid

Table 5.2.1 Concentration vs strength of acids

 Car batteries - sulfuric acid.

 Manufacture of soaps and detergents - sulfuric acid.

 Manufacture of fertilisers and explosives - sulfuric acid & nitric acid.

 Cleaning metal surfaces before they are coated - hydrochloric acid.

 Rust inhibitor - phosphoric acid.

7. Acids and the Environment

 Factories burning coal releases sulfur dioxide gas, SO2.

 Burning of petrol in car engines produces oxides of nitrogen, e.g., NO2.

 These pollutant gases dissolve in rainwater to form acidic solutions.

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) dissolves in rainwater to form sulfurous acid (H2SO3).

SO2 + H2O  H2SO3

2NO2 + H2O  HNO2 + HNO3

 CO2 + H2O  H2CO3 Ý 2H+ + CO32-

 Effects of acid rain includes:

8. What are Bases and Alkalis?

 Bases are the oxides or hydroxides of metals.

Table 8.1 Bases

 Bases which are soluble in water are known as alkalis.

 An alkali is a soluble base which produces hydroxide (OH) ions in water.

Table 8.2 Soluble bases and alkalis

(1) Alkalis have a bitter taste and feel slippery/ soapy.

KOH(aq) + HCl(aq)  KCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Special case: NH3(aq) + HCl(aq)  NH4Cl(aq)

H+(aq) + OH(aq)  H2O(l)

Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2NH4Cl(s)  CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)