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Oxides – When elements burn in air, they combine with oxygen to form oxides
1. (a) Acidic Oxides are oxides of non-metals which neutralise bases to form a salt and water only.
CO2 (g) + NaOH (aq) → Na2CO3 (aq) + H2O (l)
State symbols
Acidic oxide + base → salt + water aq = aqueous
e.g. CO2, SO2, SO3, NO2, SiO2, P2O3, P2O5 g = gas
l = liquid
(b) Acid Anhydrides are acidic oxides which dissolve in water to form acidic s = solid
solutions.
CO2 (g) + H2O (l) → H2CO3 (aq) (carbonic acid)
SO3 (g) + H2O (l) →H2SO4 (aq) (sulphuric acid)
P2O5 (s) + 3H2O (l) → 2H3PO4 (aq) (phosphoric acid)
NB: Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is a mixed acid anhydride because it dissolves in water to form
two acids.
2NO2(g) + H2O(ℓ) → HNO2(aq) + HNO3(aq)
(Nitrous acid) (Nitric acid)
2. Basic Oxides are oxides of metal which neutralise acids to form salt and water only.
MgO (s)+ H2SO4 (aq) → MgSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)
Basic oxides + acid → salt + water
Most basic oxides are insoluble in water. The soluble basic oxides (oxides of group 1 and group
II metals) dissolve to form alkalis.
Very K2O (s) + H2O (l) → 2KOH (aq) (potassium hydroxide)
Soluble Na2O (s) + H2O (l) →2NaOH (aq) (sodium hydroxide)
Slightly soluble → CaO (s) + H2O (l) → Ca (OH) 2 (aq) (calcium hydroxide)
Sparingly Soluble → MgO(s) + H2O (l) → Mg (OH) 2 (aq) (magnesium hydroxide)
Al2O3, ZnO, Fe2O3, PbO, CuO, HgO, Ag2O are all insoluble
K2O, Na2O, CaO, MgO are alkaline oxides since they dissolve in water to form alkalis
3. Neutral Oxides are the few oxides of non-metals that neither neutralise acids nor bases
e.g. Carbon monoxide (CO), Nitric oxide (NO), Water (H2O)
4. Amphoteric Oxides are the few oxides of metals which neutralises both acids and bases.
e.g. Al2O3, ZnO, PbO
ZnO(s) + H2SO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)
(Acid)
Acids
An acid is a compound which forms hydrogen ions (H+) as the only positively charged ions in aqueous
solution.
NB: The acidity of a solution is proportional to the number of H+ ions present.
Mineral acids
Hydrochloric acid (HCl (aq)) Sulphuric acid (H2SO4 (aq))
Nitric acid (HNO3 (aq))
2
Properties of acids
1. -have a sharp, sour taste
2. -turn damp blue litmus red
3. -neutralise bases to form a salt and water only
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(ℓ)
Acid + base → salt + water
4. -liberate CO2 from carbonates (CO32-) and hydrogen carbonates (HCO3-) with effervescence
[effervescence is the rapid bubbling of gas out of solution]
CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
2NaHCO3 (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → Na2SO4 (aq) + 2CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
5. -The more reactive metals (Mg, Zn, and Fe) liberate hydrogen from dilute acids with
effervescence
Zn (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
6. -liberate SO2 from sulphites (SO32-)
Na2SO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) → 2NaCl (aq) + SO2 (g) + H2O (l)
NB: The mineral acids (HCl, H2SO4, HNO3) are corrosive (burn) when concentrated
The basicity (proticity) of an acid is the number of moles of hydrogen (H+) ions produced from one
mole of the acid in aqueous solution.
A Weak Acid is one which is partially ionised in aqueous solution. It consists mainly of acid
`molecules` and its ionisation is reversible.
e.g. H2CO3 (aq) 2H+(aq) + CO32− (aq)
CH3COOH (aq) H+ (aq) + CH3COO− (aq)
Bases
3
A Base is a compound which contains oxide (O2-) or hydroxide (OH-) ions and which neutralises acids
to form a salt and water only (A base is a metal oxide or metal hydroxide).
Base
(Metal oxide or metal hydroxide)
Common Alkalis
NB: Zn (OH) 2, Pb (OH) 2, Al (OH) 3, are Amphoteric Hydroxides as they neutralize both acids and bases
to form a salt and water only.
Properties of Alkalis
1. -Have a soapy feeling and a bitter taste.
2. -Turn red litmus blue
3. -Neutralize acids to form salt and water only.
MgO (s) + H2SO4 → MgSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)
4. -Liberate ammonia (NH3) from ammonium salts
NH4Cl (s) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + NH3 (g) + H2O (l)
5. -Precipitate many hydroxides from solutions of their salts.
CuSO4 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) → Cu (OH) 2 (s) + Na2SO4 (aq)
NB: Alkaline solutions will absorb CO2 from the atmosphere resulting in a white crust being formed
on the inside of the bottle. This often makes it difficult to remove glass stoppers from the
bottles.
Strong Alkalis – completely ionized in aqueous solution.
NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH−(aq)
KOH(aq) → K+(aq) + OH−(aq)
Weak alkali – slightly ionized in aqueous solution
NH3(aq) + H2O(ℓ) ⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH−(aq)
The pH scale
4
The pH scale is a measure of the acidity (concentration of H+ ions) or alkalinity (concentration of
OH- ions) of a solution. The pH of a solution can be determined using universal indicator or a pH
meter.
Universal indicator is a mixture of indicators which changes colour depending on the acidity or
alkalinity of a solution.
MilkNormal rain Carbonic acid (sodas) Tomato juice Ethanoic acid (vinegar) Lime juice (citric acid) H2SO4 (aq) acid HCl (aq) acid
5
6
Red Orange Yellow Lime green Green Blue- green Blue Violet(purple)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Acid Rain
Acidity increasing Alkalinity increasing
Neutral
SALTS
Acid soils
Soils become acidic because of (i) acid rain or (ii) treatment with ammonium fertilizers e.g. Ammonium
sulphate. Soils treated with (NH4)2SO4 become acidic with sulphuric acid overtime. However, plants
thrive best in soils with pH between 6.3 -7. Liming the soil by adding slaked lime (solid calcium
hydroxide), quick-lime (CaO) or powdered limestone (CaCO3) neutralises the soil.
e.g., H2SO4 (aq) + Ca (OH)2 (s) → Ca SO4 (s) + 2 H2O (l)
acid in soil lime
Liming also improves drainage as it causes soil particles to clump together. This is a physical change.
NB: Lime and ammonium fertilizers should not be added to the soil at the same time as the nitrogen
needed by the plants to make protein will be lost to the atmosphere as ammonia (alkalis liberate
NH3 from ammonium salts)
e.g., (NH4)2SO4 (aq) + Ca (OH) 2 (s) → Ca SO4 (s) + 2NH3 (g) + H2O (l)
NB: Bee sting is acidic; hence treat with baking soda (alkaline)
Wasp sting is alkaline; hence treat with vinegar (ethanoic acid)