Physical Security

Part II

Caterpillar Corporate Security

CPP Review

March, 23, 2007 1

Purpose
The purpose of training program is
to prepare the the Caterpillar
Security Manager for the ASIS
Certified Protection Professional
Exam in accordance with the CPP
review course and study material

March, 23, 2007 2

Learning Objects for Physical
Security
I. Security Concepts VIII. Intrusion Detection
II. Physical Barriers System
III. Glazing material IX. Security
IV. Protective Lighting Communication
X. System Design and
V. Locks and Keys
Specification
VI. Access Control
VII. Safes and vaults

March, 23, 2007 3

 Reference Material
a) American Society of Industrial
Security, Protection of Assets Manual
Volume One 2006 edition
b) Purpura, Philip P. CPP Security and
Loss Prevention Introduction 4th
edition
c) Fischer, Robert J. and Green, Gion,
Introduction to Security, 7th edition
d) Sennewald, Chalres A. Effective
Security Management 4th edition.
March, 23, 2007 4
Safes and Vaults

Caterpillar Corporate Security

CPP review
Physical Security module

March, 23, 2007 5

 Safes (cont.)
Safes are generally designed and
classified into two types:
A. Fire Resistive
B. Burglary / Robbery Resistive

March, 23, 2007 6

 Safes
Safes can make an important contribution in
any security program, but it does not
necessarily follow that it will properly protect
everything that is stored in it.

The characteristics and limitations of various

types of safes must be understood. A safe
designed for fire protection would not be
effective in preventing a forced entry.
Materials used to dissipate heat may do little
to resist the blow of a hammer.

March, 23, 2007 7

 Safes (cont.)
A safe designed to protect money will give
little protection against fire because its
thick, solid steel walls transfer heat
rapidly to the interior.
interior Paper will be
destroyed quickly by a fire in this type of
container.
Safes of the type included in this discussion
can generally be classed as portable.
The Underwriters Laboratories Inc. (U/L)
standards require that a safe weighing less
than 750 pounds be anchored.
March, 23, 2007 8
 Fire-Resistant Safes
There are three general types of safes
designed for record protection.
– Fire-resistive safes and insulated record
containers,
– Insulated filing devices, and
– Containers to protect magnetic media
records.

March, 23, 2007 9

 Insulated Filing Devices
Insulated filing devices, designated Class
350-1hour (formerly Class D) and Class
350-1/2 hour (formerly Class E) afford
considerably less protection for records than
the three levels of fire-resistive containers
already discussed.

An insulated filing device may be expected to

give protection only against burnout in fire-
resistive buildings where the area in the
vicinity of the container has a small
quantity of combustible material.

March, 23, 2007 10

 Insulated Filing Devices (cont.)
Valuable records should not be stored in this
type of container on a floor that might collapse
during a fire because if either class of container
should be dropped it might break open, allowing the
contents to be damaged or destroyed.
One element in the construction of a record
safe is the incorporation of moisture into the
insulation to help dissipate the heat
developed during a fire.
During the impact test, a heated safe is
dropped 30 feet to see if it can withstand
the force.

March, 23, 2007 11

 Insulated Filing Devices (cont.)
Ratings for Insulated Filing Devices
Old
Classification Temp Time Impact UL
Label
350 -1 1700 F 1 hr NO D
350 – 1/2 1550 F ½ hr NO E

Ratings for Computer Media Storage

Classification Temp Time Impact
150 – 4 2000 F 4 hrs YES
150 – 2 1850 F 2 hrs YES
150 – 1 1700 F 1 hr Yes
March, 23, 2007 12
 Electronic Data Processing (EDP)
Record Protection
Electronic data storage media such as tapes
and disks pose a new records protection
problem. Magnetic media begins to
deteriorate at 150 °F or lower, and at
humidity levels of more than 80 percent.
Consequently, a need was created for
specially insulated record storage equipment,
which could withstand high humidity levels as
well as the extreme heat that might be
expected at the time of a fire.

March, 23, 2007 13

 Electronic Data Processing (EDP)
Record Protection (cont.)
Early solutions for meeting this requirement
consisted of what has been described as ‘‘a safe
within a safe’’, vis-à-vis, a sealed inner insulated
repository in which the magnetic media are
stored, and an outer safe protected by a heavy
wall of insulation. This type of container has
been designed to protect EDP records
against 125 °F and 150 °F temperatures and
80 percent humidity for 4, 3, 2, or 1 hour
periods. Later models provide the same
protection by themselves, without utilizing the
safe within a safe approach.

March, 23, 2007 14

 Fire-Resistant Safes
There are three general types of safes
designed for record protection.
– Fire-resistive safes and insulated record
containers,
– Insulated filing devices, and
– Containers to protect magnetic media
records. All must pass three tests —fire
endurance, explosion and impact.
– During the fire endurance test, the
inside temperature within the safe
cannot exceed 350 ° F.

March, 23, 2007 15

 Fire-Resistant Safes
Fire resistant safes may be found with U/L labeled as
to their protection capabilities as follows:
Old
Classification Temp Time Impact UL Label
350-4 2000 F 4 hrs yes A

350-2 1850 F 2 hrs yes B

350-1 1700 F 1 hr yes C

Once exposed to fire – a fire does not have the

degree of protection for which it was rated.

March, 23, 2007 16

 Burglary Resistive Safes
Burglary-resistive equipment will resist an
attack by tools, torch, or explosives in
accordance with their construction
specifications. Safes undergo severe testing
before receiving ratings from Underwriters
Laboratories, Inc.
TL = Tool Resistant
TRTL = Tool and Torch Resistant
TXTL = Tool, Torch and Explosive
Resistant

March, 23, 2007 17

 Burglary Resistive Safes (cont.)
The meanings of the various label
designations resulting from UL tests are
described as follows:
– TL-15 or TL- 30 indicates that the
container offers 15 or 30-minute
protection against an attack using
common electrical and mechanical
tools.

March, 23, 2007 18

 Burglary Resistive Safes (cont.)
– TRTL 15 X 6, TRTL- 30, or TRTL- 60 indicates
that the safe has been designed to give protection
against 15, 30 or 60 minutes of attack with
common electrical and mechanical tools and
cutting torches. The “ X 6” addition means that all
six surfaces of the safe give the rated protection.
– TXTL- 60 indicates the container offers 60 minutes
of protection against an expert burglary attack
using common hand tools, cutting torches, high
explosives and any combination of these
techniques.

March, 23, 2007 19

 Method of Safe Attack
Any security device constructed by man
can be defeated by man. Safes are no
exception, and some of the more common
methods used to attack them are:
– Punch: The use of a punch is one of the most
popular methods of attacking safes designed
for fire protection.
– Peel: The container is attacked with a chisel
and sledgehammer, to make a penetration so
that an edge of metal is exposed.

March, 23, 2007 20

 Method of Safe Attack (cont.)
– Rip: Another method is to cut through the
metal plating with a chisel and hammer. As
with the peel, this method is usually used only
on fire-protection
– Drill: A drill, either high torque or core, is
usually employed by professionals. Most
newer safes designed for fire protection and
all burglary-resistant chests are constructed of
drill- resistant metal.
– Burn: An oxygen-acetylene torch is used to
burn an opening in a container.

March, 23, 2007 21

 Method of Safe Attack (cont.)
– Burning Bar or Thermal Lance: Bar
packed with aluminum and magnesium wire,
or welding rods connected by a hose to an
oxygen source.
– Explosives: An explosive, usually
nitroglycerine, may be placed in the space
between the door and the jamb. A shaped
charge might also be utilized.
– Manipulation: An individual manipulating a
safe depends on sound and touch to align
the tumblers in a lock so that the door of a
safe can be opened.

March, 23, 2007 22

 Vaults
Vaults are defined as specially constructed
rooms or areas intended to limit access and
provide protection to the assets to be secured
in this space. (Enlarged Safes.)
Generally a vault is utilized to preclude forced
entry, theft or removal of the asset. The term
vault is also applied to specially constructed
rooms or areas that are designed to protect the
contents from fire and not necessarily theft.

March, 23, 2007 23

 Vaults
Vaults designed to protect assets from damage
caused by fire are generally less expensive, and are
built using very different construction standards and
do not provide much protection from theft. When
making the decision which standards to be followed
(fire or security), the owner must consider the asset
being protected and its vulnerability.
 Vault walls are high quality reinforced concrete.
 Usually located at or below ground due to weight.
 Vault doors are usually (minimum) 6 inches thick.
 Walls, floor, ceiling should be twice as thick as the
door, but not less than 12 inches reinforced concrete.

March, 23, 2007 24

Intrusion Detection Systems
Alarms and Sensors

Caterpillar Corporate Security

CPP review
Physical Security module

March, 23, 2007 25

 Alarm Sensors
Sensors are the basic ingredients to an alarm
system. They detect the condition or event
indicating a security or fire problem.
All logical discrimination, transmission,
processing, display and recording activities
that occur subsequent to initial detection have
meaning because of what sensors see, hear,
feel or otherwise sense with optical,
electronic, electromechanical or mechanical
capabilities.

March, 23, 2007 26

 Alarm Sensors (cont.)

If the sensor is inappropriate or inadequate to the

task,the output of the entire system is severely
limited, becoming a greater burden than benefit.
Designed to report the presence of persons
attempting to enter or move about in protected areas,
intrusion detectors can be divided into three
general classes, based on what they are intended to
detect and the location of the installation:
• Perimeter or point of entry;
• General area; and
• Object

March, 23, 2007 27

 Categories of Sensors
Sensors of all types should be designed to
initiate alarms under any of the following
conditions:
– Occurrence of the event or condition being
monitored (penetration of protected area, rise in
temperature, presence of smoke)
– Loss of electrical power
– Opening, shorting or grounding of the device
circuitry
– Failure of the sensor itself
– Tampering with the sensor ’s enclosure or
distributed control panels (transponders).

March, 23, 2007 28

 Categories of Sensors (cont.)
Units for indoor use should be capable of
operating in a temperature range of
32 °F to 120 °F.

Units to be installed outdoors or in

unheated structures should be capable of
operating in temperatures ranging from
minus 30 °F to 150 °F.

All units should be capable of operating at

90 °F and 95 percent relative humidity.
humidity
March, 23, 2007 29
 Passive Infrared (PIR) Sensors
Passive infrared sensors, commonly referred to
simply as PIR’s,
PIR’s are the most widely used intrusion
detectors today and are highly versatile. PIR’s ‘‘see
’’the invisible, bold colors of thermal or infrared (IR)
energy. Because there is no beam, they are called
passive. Like heat from the sun, this energy has no
visible color or light.

A PIR sees warm, infrared images against a cooler

background. PIR’s are actually able to detect
objects that are either warmer or cooler against
background temperature. Effectiveness
diminishes as background temperature
approaches that of the intruder.

March, 23, 2007 30

 Passive Infrared (PIR) Sensors (cont.)
Since human intruders in temperate climates are usually
warmer than the background, the requirement here is for a
PIR to detect warmer objects. This perspective changes in
warmer climates, where room temperatures may be hotter
than intruders. The cooler temperature of a human (98.6 °F)
is what the PIR should see here.
In environments where temperatures are not artificially
regulated —such as unheated, non-air conditioned warehouses
or vacant vacation homes —or where the ability of the PIR to
discern temperature variations is particularly critical, automatic
temperature compensation is an essential feature. A unit is
needed that expands the temperature range at which it can see
an intruder. Design and installation of PIR’s are key to avoiding
sources of false alarms.

March, 23, 2007 31

 PIR Design
A working understanding of modern PIR design can
be gained from knowing how two essential
components work together. First is the fresnel lens.
lens
The lens focuses IR images onto a pyroelectric
sensor. Much like a magnifying glass focuses the
sun’s heat, the fresnel lens creates a sharper image.

The second thing to know is that the pyroelectric

sensor (simply, pyro) produces an electrical
output when subjected to a change in IR energy.
If the sensed changes are typical of a human
signature in terms of mass, shape and intensity, a
signal-processing unit in the PIR alarms.

March, 23, 2007 32

 PIR Design (cont.)
Proper installation is a primary consideration in
avoiding false alarms. Ideally, a PIR should be
mounted in a location where an intruder would pass
across its field of view. Electrically connected
peripheral devices —CCTV cameras, video
recorders, lights, heating and ventilation controls,
door openers and local alarms —can all be activated
when a PIR is triggered.

Drafts and insects are common sources of false

alarms. Air from vents and other sources of drafts
should not flow directly on the unit. Direct sunlight
can cause false alarms, so it ’s important to avoid
mounting a PIR where it will see a bright window or
direct sunlight in its field of view.

March, 23, 2007 33

 Glass Break Sensors
Glass break sensors have largely replaced
foil in most applications. They offer the
advantage of sounding an alarm while an
intruder is still outside.
Breaking glass produces unique sound wave
frequencies (3 to 5 kHz), that glass break
sensors ‘‘hear,’’ and seismic shock
frequencies (200 Hz) that they ‘‘feel.’’
Built-in microprocessors enable the devices
to react to these sounds and ignore others
that cause false alarms.

March, 23, 2007 34

 Acoustic Sensors
Several designs of acoustic sensors are available.
Acoustic sensors may have the capability of sensing
one or both of the acoustic and seismic frequency
ranges.

Those that simultaneously listen and feel are more

reliable and less susceptible to false alarms.

Microprocessors make it possible to differentiate

between the sound of breaking glass and other sounds
that cause false alarms.

March, 23, 2007 35

 Acoustic Sensors (cont.)
Acoustic Glass Break Sensors:
Sensors Can be installed
on walls or ceilings. Detection is best when installed
on a wall opposite protected glass, since sound
waves need not then reflect off an opposing wall
before reaching the detector. Susceptible to false
alarms from radio frequency interference.

Shock Sensors: Glass break shock sensors ‘‘feel

’’the shock wave generated by breaking glass and
signal an alarm. Attached directly to a protected
pane of glass or adjoining window frame,
frame they
are an appropriate choice for protecting glass in
loud, occupied rooms where acoustic sensors may
be prone to false alarms.
March, 23, 2007 36
 Dual Technology Sensors
Dual technology PIR/Microwave detectors initiate an
alarm upon simultaneous activation of two alarm
technologies working in concert (communicating)
with one another. Both technologies must process
and signal to initiate an alarm. Units with
supervised circuitry provide continuing protection
from the PIR alone if the microwave fails.

Devices are available that combine PIR with glass

break technology.
technology This innovation has solved the
problem of arming glass break sensors in occupied
buildings.

March, 23, 2007 37

 Dual Technology Sensors (cont.)
Because glass break sensors are prone to false
alarms caused by noises other than breaking glass,
such as banging mop buckets and noisy janitorial
crews, it was often impractical to arm glass break
sensors until buildings were totally vacant.

By combining technologies, the glass break sensors

can be relied upon to ignore noise that might
otherwise generate an alarm whenever the PIR
sensor ‘‘sees’ ’someone (like a janitor) inside the
room.

March, 23, 2007 38

 Electromechanical Sensors
Electromechanical devices are relatively simple and
provide stable, reliable service.

Magnetic and Mechanical Switches: Accessible

openings such as doors, windows and skylights may be
protected with either mechanical or magnetic
intrusion switches. This type of sensor is composed
of a two-part electrical contact. One is installed on the
opening surface, the other installed on the fixed
surface. When the opening surface (typically a door), is
in a closed position, the two contacts provide a closed
circuit. When the opening surface is moved, separating
the contacts, the circuit is broken and the interruption in
current activates an alarm. The switches may be
either mechanical or magnetic, recessed or surface
mounted, wired or wireless. They should always be
installed on the protected or secure side.
March, 23, 2007 39
Electromechanical Sensors (cont.)
 Wire and Screen Detectors: Fine, hard-drawn
breakwire may be utilized in various
configurations to fabricate window screens,
grids and lacing for installation on openings and
barriers to detect forcible penetration. This
method of protecting building openings is not as
widely used today as other technologies. Wire
‘‘strain gauges ’’may also be used on fencing.
 Pressure Mats: This type of intrusion detection
device is virtually obsolete, and has been
replaced by other technologies —principally
PIR’s. Mats were typically installed under
carpeting near doors, on stair treads or in other
strategic locations.

March, 23, 2007 40

 Ultrasonic Sensors

Based on the Doppler effect, microwaves or sound

waves are disturbed when movement changes signal
frequency between transmission and receipt. As long
as the return pattern being received is the same as
that being transmitted, a stable condition exists.

When a distortion of the wave pattern caused by

movement is detected, an alarm is initiated. Like
PIR’s, the range of an ultrasonic detector is limited.

March, 23, 2007 41

 Ultrasonic Sensors (cont.)
An ultrasonic sensor is not influenced by
exterior audio noise. Because it reacts only to
movement within a protected area, movement
beyond walls of the protected area will not cause an
alarm. Air currents, such as those from air
conditioning, may cause false alarms.

As with a PIR, an ultrasonic detector would detect

a ‘‘lock in ’’or concealed intruder by that person
’s movement. It does not alarm if cabinets or
containers placed flush against a wall are penetrated
through the wall because there is no movement in
the path of the sound waves. This type of sensor is
usually limited to indoor application where types of
movements are less varied than those found in
typical exterior environments
March, 23, 2007 42
 Microwave Sensors
The microwave sensor operates on generally the
same principle as the ultrasonic sensor. The
difference lies in the type of wave or signal used. The
ultrasonic sensor uses a high frequency sound wave,
whereas the microwave sensor utilizes much higher
frequency electromagnetic energy. The microwave
transmitter sends a signal that is reflected back to an
antenna. A comparison circuit compares the
transmitted and reflected signals. If there is no
movement in the area, the wave form remains
constant.

March, 23, 2007 43

 Microwave Sensors (cont.)
When the signal is reflected from a moving object,
the waveform changes, initiating an alarm.
Microwave sensors may be utilized in outdoor
applications as well as indoors because they are
not generally affected by heavy fog, rain, snow,
sleet, air turbulence, drafts, noise, temperature
extremes or atmospheric disturbances.

March, 23, 2007 44

 Microwave Sensors (cont.)
When utilized for area protection, the wave pattern is
designed to flood a room or area being protected.
When used for perimeter protection a narrow beam is
directed around the area or zone to be protected. An
interruption of this beam causes an alarm. A
microwave beam can be blocked or diverted by metal
objects, so any movement behind metal objects in a
room or area will not be detected.

The waves penetrate common nonmetallic

construction material, such as plaster walls, and
detect movement outside the protected area. False
alarms may result if this factor is not considered
in planning a microwave installation.
March, 23, 2007 45
 Capacitance Sensors
A capacitance sensor is a large electrical condenser
that radiates energy and detects change in the
capacitive coupling between an antenna and the
ground. In a typical installation, a capacitance sensor
wire is connected to an object to be protected, such
as a safe or file cabinet. An intruder who touches the
object absorbs some of the electrical energy,
disturbing the circuit and causing an alarm.
Newer technologies, such as PIR’s, detect an
intruder long before he or she reaches a protected
object and have replaced many capacitance type
devices. However, if it is critical to limit the field of
detection just to the protected object (safe or file
cabinet for example), the capacitance device may still
be the preferred protection.
March, 23, 2007 46
 Shock and Vibration Sensors
Utilizing the same technology as glass break
shock sensors for object protection, these
alarms detect vibrations caused by an
intruder ’s attempt to penetrate the wall of a
room, enclosure, vault, control panel, safe or
filing cabinet. An alarm discriminator may be
included in the sensor and adjusted so that
vibration outside the protected space or
surface is disregarded.

March, 23, 2007 47

 Audio Sensors

Microphones capable of receiving sound in the

audible range (from 20 to about 20,000 Hz) are
inconspicuously installed inside the protected area.
An amplifier is also part of the installation so that
intrusion sounds can be transmitted and activate an
alarm. As audio sensors have become more
sophisticated their use has increased in specialized
applications.

March, 23, 2007 48

 Audio Sensors (CONT.)
A typical use may be inside a specialty retail store in
a busy shopping mall. Central station operators
monitoring sensor output can actually listen in on the
protected space, recording sounds and voices of
intruders, later to be used as evidence. Fences may
also be protected by audio sensors that ‘‘listen ’’to the
sound of cutting or climbing as it travels through
fencing material.

Audio sensors may allow for greater discrimination

between genuine forced entry or climbing attempts
and false alarm sources such as wind or accidental
impact.

March, 23, 2007 49

 Photoelectric Sensors
 Photoelectric sensors operate based on
modification of a light level or interruption of a
light beam protecting an area.
 If the light beam is visible, it can be avoided. For
this reason, infrared filters are usually placed over
the light source so only invisible light is
transmitted.
 Over distances longer than 500 to 1000 feet
operating ranges, light sources or receiver
strength may need to be amplified.
 To counteract the possibility of circumventing the
device by introducing an outside light source such
as a flashlight, receiver frequencies may be
designed to modulate, thereby being
unpredictable.

March, 23, 2007 50

 Photoelectric Sensors (CONT.)
 Photoelectric detection devices may be used both
indoors and outdoors.
 Exterior units are designed with protection against
the elements. Some are equipped with self-contained
heaters to maintain a reasonably constant operating
temperature.
 Extremes of weather involving snow or heavy fog can
affect or even disable exterior photoelectric devices.
In a typical application protecting multiple doors such
as at a loading dock, a single straight beam of light
may be zigzagged using mirrors or multiple beams
may be tiered, making avoidance difficult. Each
mirror shortens the effective range by about 1/3.

March, 23, 2007 51

 Closed Circuit TV Sensors
 Closed circuit television use as a motion alarm sensor
has grown in recent years. Measurement of a change
in the scene under CCTV surveillance is the basis for
this technology. The scene is stored and compared to
the real-time signal during the next frame.
 Such systems are capable of detecting and comparing
motion on multiple video signals, generating hardware
or software alarms. Parameters of motion detection
algorithms —such as for the sensitivity of detection —
are under user control.
 While these devices prove useful in many applications,
the generation of a video alarm alone cannot determine
whether the intruder appearing in the image is a good
guy or a bad guy.

March, 23, 2007 52

 Closed Circuit TV Sensors (CONT.)
 With digitized imagery it is possible to develop TV
motion detection even further in that any number of
screen bits can be selected for change (movement)
monitoring. Irregular patterns of a screen display can
thus be studied without being effected by status
changes elsewhere in the scene being viewed.

March, 23, 2007 53

 Balanced Pressure Sensor
 A balanced pressure sensor has been developed
for outdoor applications. This sensor consists of
liquid-filled hoses spaced about four feet apart.
 A differential pressure sensor is connected at one
end of each hose or tube.
 Intruders are detected by sensing slight changes
in differential pressure on soil as intruders walk or
crawl over ground where hoses are buried.
 The hoses can be buried to conform to the contour
of the ground along fence lines or across open
spaces.

March, 23, 2007 54

 Balanced Pressure Sensor (CONT.)
 Hoses are buried about 12 to 15 inches deep and
depend on the elasticity of soil around lines to transmit
detection pressure.
 Anything reducing this elasticity, such as rock or frozen
soil, reduces device sensitivity. Extraneous vibration
caused by nearby heavy traffic or by trees bending in
the wind can cause the sensor to activate a false alarm.
 A better buried detector utilizes coaxial cable whose
shielding has been stripped or perforated at measured
intervals. This ‘‘leaky coax ’’radiates an electronic signal
that creates a standing pattern through the soil and to a
height of several feet above the surface. Movement
through the signal causes an alarm.

March, 23, 2007 55

 Sensors for Fire Protection
 As with alarm sensors for security applications, fire
alarm systems have also become more intelligent and
addressable.
 Modern sensors are intelligent detection devices that
provide two-way communication and sophisticated,
graphic user interfaces.
 Communication software employs protocols that
contain both digital and analog signals, allowing each
sensor to communicate its individual address, sensor
type and an analog value.
 System controllers analyze the analog signal to
measure the sensitivity of each sensor and to
communicate its status. Normal, pre-alarm, alarm and
trouble conditions are differentiated.
 Operators can observe changing conditions of the
sensor and environment at an alarm ’s point of origin
March, 23, 2007 56
 Sensors for Fire Protection (CONT.)
Sensors that detect fire or fire precursors
as early as possible should be selected
because:

– An early alarm permits safe evacuation

of a building or facility;
– The fire can be extinguished while
small; and
– Destruction of facilities and material
can be prevented

March, 23, 2007 57

 Stages of Fire
The four stages of fire are:
 Incipient stage —invisible products of combustion
are given off, and no visible smoke, flame or
appreciable heat is yet present;
 Smoldering stage —combustion products are now
visible as smoke, but flame or appreciable heat is
still not present;
 Flame stage —the actual flames of a fire now exist,
and while appreciable heat is still not present it
follows almost instantaneously; and
 Heat stage —uncontrolled heat and rapidly
expanding air are characteristic of a fully involved
fire.

March, 23, 2007 58

 Fire Sensor Types
 Types of fire sensors include:
thermal (heat),
smoke (photoelectric),
flame (ultraviolet),
products-of-combustion or ionization,
fusible element devices and water flow
indicators.

March, 23, 2007 59

 Fire Sensor Types (cont.)

 Two types of thermal detectors are available.

A fixed temperature type responds when
detection elements reach a predetermined
temperature, and a rate-of-rise type that
responds to an increase in heat at a rate
greater than some predetermined value.
 Some sensors combine both the fixed
temperature and rate-of-rise principle. Still
others integrate smoke and thermal detection
capabilities.

March, 23, 2007 60

 Fire Sensor Types (cont.)

 Smoke sensors are designed to activate an

alarm when obscuration in a test chamber is
caused by smoke accumulation in the air.
 Flame detectors activate an alarm when the
spectral field reaches the predetermined color,
usually in the ultraviolet range.
 Invisible products-of-combustion detectors
respond to the very early change in ionization
(electrical charge in the air) typical of early
combustion.

March, 23, 2007 61

 Fire Sensor Types (cont.)

 Fusible element devices involve frangible materials

or those with very low melting temperatures. When
the ambient temperature causes the frangible
element (often liquid inside glass) to break, or the low
melting point link to melt, a contact is opened or
closed and an alarm is transmitted.
 Water flow indicators are installed in sprinkler
system risers and mains and when water flows in the
system at a faster than preset rate(typically 10
gallons per minute or more), electrical contacts are
closed and an alarm is initiated.

March, 23, 2007 62

Security Communication
Alarm Monitoring and
Communication
Caterpillar Corporate Security
CPP review
Physical Security module

March, 23, 2007 63

Alarm Transmission and Control Panels
 Methods for transmitting alarm signals, like the
technology of devices themselves, are advancing
rapidly. No longer must alarm and control points be
wired together. RF, microwave, laser, cellular
telephones and satellites are a few of the
alternatives now available.
 Cellular telephone transmission has vastly
improved flexibility because the availability of
telephone lines is no longer an issue. Cellular
transmission also makes redundancy possible in
the event phone lines are cut or fail.
 Digitized cellular transmission can be even more
effective because the transmissions are not subject
to degradation or garble from atmospheric
interference like random RFI or EMI.
March, 23, 2007 64
Alarm Transmission and Control Panels (cont.)
 Control modules are intended for collecting,
processing and reporting data from various
detection devices that are part of an intrusion
system. System controllers do not detect anything
themselves; rather, they collect and process
intelligence from the actual sensors.

Choosing a controller that offers features you

will need and use is critical to overall
functionality of an alarm system.

March, 23, 2007 65

 Security Communications
A major task for the assets protection
professional is addressing relevant concerns
when considering a communications
application. The task is complicated by the
expanding range of available communications
technology. In every communication, security
professionals are concerned with:

March, 23, 2007 66

 Security Communications (cont.)
Integrity of the communications medium
(availability of the message path is
available);
Integrity of the message (complete and
errorless transmission of the data);
Timeliness of the transmission (data
communication within an appropriate time
frame); and
Message security (accessibility of the
communication to authorized persons
only).

March, 23, 2007 67

Wire Transmission of Alarm & Audio Signals
 Alarm signals may be transmitted on an unshielded pair
of direct current (DC) conductors. The size of the wire
and its resistance must be considered because
resistance varies directly with the length of the line and
inversely with the diameter of the wire. The wire
resistance limits the effective length of a line.

 Audio transmissions require the use of shielded twisted

pairs of alternating current (AC) type wires, referred to
in telephone parlance as voice-grade lines.

 Alarm signals and audio transmissions both may be

transmitted on the same pair of twisted, shielded wires.
Signals also may be transmitted on lines installed to
carry electric power.

March, 23, 2007 68

 Optical Fiber
 The capability of optical fiber to transmit
extremely large volumes of information at the
speed of light has revolutionized the
communications industry.
 This signal carrying capacity makes it
possible to transport more sophisticated
signals than could ever be handled by a like
amount of copper.
 Optical fibers can be used to carry voice-
grade signals, video signals and digital or
‘‘data grade ’’signals.

March, 23, 2007 69

 Optical Fiber (cont.)
Optical fibers differ from conventional metal wire in
that they:
– Are not affected by electromagnetic interference
(EMI) or radio frequency interference (RFI);
– Do not carry any electrical current and do not
‘‘radiate ’’signals;
– Carry many more different multiplexed messages
than conventional wires;
– Are much smaller and lighter than conventional
wires;
– Are flexible and can take an irregular course from
point to point; and
– Are not vulnerable to interception by acoustical or
inductive coupling
March, 23, 2007 70
 Video Transmissions
 Video signals cannot be transmitted directly on DC
lines. However, video can be transmitted on coaxial
and optical fiber cable, on standard telephone line or
on balanced twisted wire pairs.
 For coaxial cable transmission, the video signal does
not require further processing between the camera
and the monitor if the transmission distance is short
enough, typically 1,000 feet. Longer transmissions
can be achieved if the signal is amplified along the
way.
 If the transmission path is via optical fiber and the
telephone signal is in digital format, real-time
transmission is possible because the optical fiber can
transmit more data faster than standard telephone
copper wire pairs.
March, 23, 2007 71
 Status and Alarm Transmission
Three types of line transmission installations usually
are used in electronic protection systems:
• loop,
• point-to-point and
• multiplex.
• The three types may be used with proprietary wire
networks or leased telephone lines.
• With any alarm system configuration, access to the
control unit would permit disabling the entire system;
thus, physical security of the control unit or console.

March, 23, 2007 72

 Loop
 In a loop system,
system devices are installed on a
pair of wires that have been looped
throughout an area, a building or a facility,
and connected to a control center.
 A signal at the control center indicates when
an abnormal situation occurs on the loop.
This system may be adequate for a small
space or a single facility; however, the better
method is to code the signal from each
detector so that the source of each signal
can be defined at the central point.

March, 23, 2007 73

 Loop (cont.)
 A short circuit or broken connection on the loop
may interrupt all signals on the far side of the
break. This problem can be partially corrected
by using a McCulloh circuit.
 In this circuit, when an open occurs, the circuit is
switched to send current from the control unit
over both sides of the circuit wires out to the
break point. The circuit integrity is thus restored
to all devices on either side of the open.
 If two circuit breaks occur, any devices between
the two breaks will be lost, as there will not be
any circuit path between the breaks.
March, 23, 2007 74
 Point-to-Point
 Each sensor in a point-to-point installation is
connected directly to a control center by a pair of
wires.
 This ‘‘hard wired ’’type of installation is more
expensive than the loop system because more wire is
required; however, only one detector is influenced
in case of an individual line fault.
 An attacker attempting to disable the system would
have to define each wire controlling each sensor in
the area to be penetrated, and each alarm line would
have to be disabled. With the loop system, all the
detectors in an area could be disabled by interrupting
the loop at the proper location.
March, 23, 2007 75
 Multiplexing
 Multiplexing is a technique to transmit several
messages simultaneously on the same medium.
The transmission medium can be wire, radio
frequency (RF), microwave or optical fiber. A
multiplex installation can be more cost effective
than a loop or point-to-point installation, as
multiple signals are transmitted over longer
distances to a control center.

The two methods generally used are:

1. time separation or time division multiplexing
(TDM); and
2. frequency separation or frequency division
multiplexing (FDM).

March, 23, 2007 76

 Multiplexing (cont.)

 With TDM (time division multiplexing),

multiplexing) each
sensor or data source is assigned a time
segment and each may transmit only during
its assigned segment.
 In FDM (frequency division multiplexing),
signals from a number of sensors on a
common transmission line occupy different
portions of the frequency spectrum. Even
though transmitted simultaneously, their
different frequencies keep them individually
identifiable at the receiver.

March, 23, 2007 77

 Communications Security
Line Protection:
 The switched telephone network, dedicated
telephone lines or proprietary circuits may be utilized
in a protection system.
 To protect the communications, outside wiring should
be installed underground and inside wiring should be
installed in conduits. The telecommunications service
provider should be requested to provide an
underground service connection.
 In particularly vulnerable situations, the underground
service should not be taken from the nearest utility
pole, but from a more distant one to further obscure
the actual wire path to an attacker.

March, 23, 2007 78

Communications Security (cont.)
Line Supervision:
Supervision
 A wire alarm system should be designed with line
supervision to check the circuits automatically and
immediately signal line faults.
 The simplest line supervision is an end-of-line resistor
installed to introduce a constant, measurable
electrical current. A variance from the normal level
beyond a determined threshold will be detected and
generate an alarm.
 This simple type of line supervision normally detects
an open circuit (broken connection), a ground or a
wire-to-wire short.

March, 23, 2007 79

 Wireless Communications
 Wireless communications can
include:
• voice radio,
• wireless alarm signals,
• cellular telephones,
• local digital fixed wireless systems,
• satellite, microwave, and
• laser.

March, 23, 2007 80

 Wireless Communications (cont.)
 Any unscrambled or unencrypted
communication transmitted by wireless
technology should be considered available for
interception.
 Microwave and laser technologies rely on line
of sight.
 Microwave penetrates rain, fog and snow and
is not affected by man-made noise.
 Laser is affected by weather conditions.

March, 23, 2007 81

 Wireless Communications (cont.)
Wireless interference: Proper signal
reception depends on the ability of the
equipment to discriminate wanted signals
from unwanted signals and noise. Unwanted
signals (interference) may be encountered in
any radio communication system. Some of
the most common causes of interference are
signals from other transmitters and industrial
and atmospheric noise. Noise interference
can be man-made or natural.

March, 23, 2007 82

 Systems Considerations
Individual sensors do not provide security protection
unless they are integrated into a system that
transmits the individual signals to one or more
monitoring locations.
When sensors are configured into a meaningful and
functional array, it’s called sensor integration and is
the basic task of security system design.
Systems that maximize the common control of a
variety of sensors and field devices are called
integrated systems.

Sensors and their array are one part of a protection

system. Two other elements, software and
personnel,
personnel are necessary to complete it .
March, 23, 2007 83
 Alarm Termination
Proper termination of alarms ensures response to
signals. There are four methods of alarm
terminations:
– Local;
– Central station;
– Direct connection (to police or fire); and
– Proprietary termination in a business or industrial
facility.

These methods can be used individually or in

combination.

March, 23, 2007 84

 Local Alarm Termination
 Local alarm termination utilizes a sound-generating
device —usually a bell, or horn on the exterior wall of
the protected area —to call attention to a violation.
 The installation can be designed so that lights are
turned on both inside and outside the protected area,
and other presumed deterrents are activated.
 In this type of installation, it is anticipated that the
police hear an alarm, or that a passerby, hearing the
alarm, alerts the police.

March, 23, 2007 85

 Local Alarm Termination (cont.)
 This type of termination is inexpensive to install, but
is relatively easy to defeat because of its simplicity.
 Some local sounders rely on battery power that
requires frequent testing and increases maintenance
costs. It is recommended that all such devices be
connected to a power supply supported by both main
power and short-term battery back up to cover main
power blackouts and brownouts.
 One positive feature to an alarm is that an intruder
knows his entry has been detected, and therefore he
might leave immediately without causing any
damage.

March, 23, 2007 86

 Central Station Termination
Alarm termination at a commercial central alarm station is
sometimes referred to as a silent alarm installation because
there is usually no signal at the protected location. The central
station may receive signals from protected premises by one of
four methods:

– Direct wire: a dedicated enunciation device or

switchboard at the station for that single
subscriber;
– Common transmitter: serves multiple
subscribers but involves a higher level of
vulnerability because failure or compromise of the
common transmitter imperils all users and may
leave all of them without alarm protection, at least
temporarily;
March, 23, 2007 87
 Central Station Termination (cont.)
– Multiplex circuits: transmit simultaneous or
sequential signals over a common communication
channel with a means for positively identifying
each signal; or
– Digital communicator: provides for the
connection of protected premises to the central
station via the telephone-switched network
Direct wire, common transmitters and
multiplexed systems may utilize leased
telephone lines, microwave or radio
frequencies, or a combination.

March, 23, 2007 88

Direct Police or Fire Department Termination
Some jurisdictions allow alarms to be
terminated at police or fire headquarters. In
these cases, the municipal dispatcher or
another individual monitors alarm signals
received and initiates a response. As with the
central station termination, a leased
telephone line is usually used to transmit
signals between the protected area and the
facility receiving the alarm.

March, 23, 2007 89

Direct Police or Fire Department Termination
Although reputable manufacturers offer
automatic dialers, dedicated lines are more
reliable for a number of reasons —in addition
to the attack vulnerability.
 First, if it is not possible to provide line
security because dialers use the regular
telephone switch network.
 Second, if the number being dialed (to signal
a penetration) is busy; the signal may not get
through, although later models will redial for a
set period or number of tries.

March, 23, 2007 90

 Proprietary Termination
A proprietary alarm termination is designed so
that all alarm signals in a facility terminate at a
central point within the protected enterprise.
This type of installation is similar to the central
station but instead of a commercial central station
monitoring alarms, personnel in the protected
facility, or otherwise under control of the owner of
the facility, performs that task.
An adequate number of security officers must be
employed to monitor the console where the alarms
terminate and to respond to alarm conditions. Many
disadvantages listed for the other type of alarm
terminations are eliminated when an enterprise is of
sufficient size to justify installation and operation of
a proprietary alarm system.
March, 23, 2007 91
System Design and
Specification
Project Management

Caterpillar Corporate Security

CPP review
Physical Security module

March, 23, 2007 92

 System Design - Advantages
 The integration of all sensors and devices utilized in a
modern protection system is a complex design task.
Before systems can be designed, it’s necessary to
analyze both security needs and operating constraints.
 The use of electronic systems and components can
result in two advantages —cost reduction and
improvement of protection.
protection
 Major cost reduction is often possible because
electronic techniques and equipment can be substituted
for personnel. Past experience indicates possible
reductions of as much as 50 percent of pre-system
personnel costs.
 The cost of the installed system would be amortized
over its estimated useful life and the net expense
decrease would be the achievable saving. (cont).

March, 23, 2007 93

 System Design - Advantages (cont.)
 Better protection usually results when reliable
sensors are properly installed and maintained.
 Some patrol inspection can be eliminated or reduced
with electronically supervised sensors. This reduces
the total number of personnel needed and results in
lower personnel costs.
 Electronic techniques can also enhance supervision
of such personnel. The combination of checkpoints
and mobile communication makes it possible for the
control center operator to know where the patrolling
personnel are located at all times. In the event of
patrol tour delinquency, injury or other exceptions,
other nearby stations can respond.
 In general, the more effective the personnel, the
fewer personnel needed.
March, 23, 2007 94
 System Design and Specification
System in the security context is defined as a
combination of equipment, personnel and
procedures, coordinated in such a way as to
assure optimum achievement of the system’s
stated security objectives.

Note that a system includes more than hardware

components and, although much of the following
discussion is related to security technology, the
process is also applicable to the design,
procurement and deployment of security staff.

March, 23, 2007 95

System Design and Specification (cont.)
More important, the technology element of a system
is totally ineffective in a vacuum without the staffing
and procedural elements to support it.

Integration is the logical and symbiotic

combination of these elements into a system. The
definition refers to the stated security objectives; the
planning phase assists in determining those
objectives.

March, 23, 2007 96

System Design and Specification (cont.)
A security system implementation project
includes:

– Determining security requirements;

– Developing solutions for resolving
vulnerabilities;
– Preparing security systems construction
documents;
– Soliciting pricing; and
– Installing, commissioning and testing
the security system.

March, 23, 2007 97

 Planning Phase
The planning phase consists of gathering all
the information needed to make informed
decisions when selecting solutions to security
problems. It is a formal process of identifying
the problems and of developing objectives,
criteria, concepts and methods that will be
used in the design phase. The time spent in
the planning phase gets returned, so to
speak, in the form of reduced costs and fewer
meetings, and in system ’s overall longevity

March, 23, 2007 98

 Planning Phase (cont.)

The outcome of planning is a set of security

requirements, or objectives, that will be used
as a reality check throughout the design (and
implementation) process.
process
Another important outcome of the planning
phase: the development of the business and
economic justification for the new or
upgraded security system.

March, 23, 2007 99

 Requirements Definition
While the vulnerability assessment task is used to
define and understand the security problems, the
requirements definition task is used to develop
countermeasure solutions to those problems. Before
looking at specific requirements, it is useful to
formulate a statement of the overall objectives or
mission of the integrated security system (ISS).

The objectives must reflect and support the overall

corporate mission if the ISS is to be funded and
supported by executive management. The overall
objectives should be checked as each requirements
definition is being developed. (cont…)

March, 23, 2007 100

 Requirements Definition (cont.)
Developing security requirements means examining
each vulnerability and defining what functions are
required to mitigate, reduce, limit or erase that
vulnerability. It is useful to add a level of confidence
factor to each requirements definition.
The requirements definition should focus on
preventing, delaying or modifying the consequences.
Solutions to different vulnerabilities may be the same
or similar.
Likewise, not every solution (or prevention technique)
will solve (or prevent) every problem. A planning
process must evaluate all vulnerabilities and cannot
be bypassed for assuming one thing will take care of
other things.

March, 23, 2007 101

 Design Criteria
Design criteria are the ground rules for the
design and selection of subsystems and
components.

They are also known as functional

requirements .

March, 23, 2007 102

 Design Criteria (cont.)
The criteria fall into a number of categories:
– Codes & Standards: Design and implementation
will probably be required to follow both national and
local building, and fire/life safety codes.
– Quality: Ultimate quality is achieved only at ultimate
cost. A sensible level needs to be designated to
ensure that costs are kept in check. Quality also
needs to be applied on a consistent basis.
– Capacity: Capacity, size and space requirements
will affect the design of solutions.
– Performance: Performance of individual
components is usually detailed in the system
specification. Includes reliability and maintainability
criteria.
March, 23, 2007 103
 Design Criteria (cont.)
– Features: Major system features should be defined.
– Cost: The most common constraint is
implementation cost.
– Operations: Security programs need to have
minimum negative impact on productivity.
– Culture and Image: Corporate culture greatly
factors into the implementation of security programs.
– Monitoring and Response: An essential
component in any security program is security staff
to monitor alarm systems and to respond to alarm
conditions.

March, 23, 2007 104

Preliminary Estimate of Probable Cost
The last task in the planning phase is to develop
budgets for both capital and recurring costs
associated with the proposed system. Since no
detailed design work has been performed nor have
component quantities been finalized, the budgets
must be preliminary estimates, at best.

Although the estimate is preliminary, its accuracy is

important to the project. If the estimate is too low,
discovering the real cost could lead to abandoning
the project. If the cost estimate is too high, the budget
may not be approved.

March, 23, 2007 105

 Security Manager’s Role
The security manager ’s role is primary to the
successful design and implementation of the
system. The security manager must
understands three important concepts:
1. The security manager lives with the
consequences of system failure and therefore
must assume accountability and ownership of
the system. Ownership is achieved by
understanding the process of design and
implementation and by maintaining direct
involvement throughout the project.

March, 23, 2007 106

 Security Manager’s Role (cont.)
2. One person cannot be a specialist in all the aspects
of design and construction. The security manager
needs to be able to identify where expertise is
lacking and be prepared to hire specialists —
either full-time staff or independent consultants —
to maintain the level of involvement required to
achieve ‘‘ownership.’’
3. The system solutions must reflect the
organization ’s mission, must be responsive to the
organization ’s culture and business operations, and,
to be successful, must have the executive
management ’s ‘‘fingerprints ’’on the plan.

March, 23, 2007 107

 Design & Documentation Phase
Once the planning phase has been completed and
reviewed, and the design concepts and budgetary
cost estimates have been approved, the project
moves into the design and documentation phase.

The objective of this phase is to complete the design

and to document the process to the level of detail
necessary for the chosen method of procurement —
by the sole source of a trusted supplier, by
competitive requests for proposals from a list of
suppliers or by competitive invitation for bids openly
advertised.

March, 23, 2007 108

 Contractual Details
This section of the construction documents describes
the form of contract to be used when a supplier of
goods and/or services has been chosen.

It covers items such as insurance and bonding

requirements, site regulations, labor rules, delivery
and payment terms, methods of measuring work
progress for partial payment, owner recourse in the
event of nonperformance, termination conditions,
application of unit pricing to additions and deletions,
instructions to bidders, etc.

For a large construction project, the architect or

the construction manager develops this
document to cover all trades including security.
March, 23, 2007 109
 Design Specifications
The design specifications provide the means to
define accurately and completely the system
requirements in such detail that:

– The final implementation reflects what was

intended; and

– All bidders get the same, complete understanding

of the requirements. Incomplete or inaccurate
specifications can lead to wildly different bids and
an inability of the procurer to compare and select
among them.

March, 23, 2007 110

 Minimum Security Specifications
A minimum security system specification should
include the following:
– Instructions to bidders with a list of all
documents included in the contract documents;

– A functional description of the complete

systems, their intended operation and the
installation schedule;

– A list of products and services to be included in

this contract;

– A list of applicable codes and standards

March, 23, 2007 111

Minimum Security Specifications (cont.)
– A list of products and services that are required
as part of the security system but are included in
other contracts. Such split responsibilities require
careful coordination among contractors. An
example is electrical door hardware provided and
installed under the door hardware contract but
which the security contractor must connect to the
security system;

– Support services such as drawing, sample and

documentation submittals, commissioning, testing,
training, warranty, maintenance and spare parts

March, 23, 2007 112

Minimum Security Specifications (cont.)
– Technical descriptions of all major subsystems
and their components including capacity,
capability, expandability, performance and
operational parameters, environmental operating
parameters, installation and integration details,
appearance and finish, and acceptable makes and
models; and

– General site conditions, installation standards

and quality control standards

March, 23, 2007 113

 Design Coordination

Just as security does not exist in a vacuum within an

organization, security design on a construction
project is affected by many other design disciplines.
Careful coordination between the security system
designer and other design team members is essential
to avoid missing elements of the design or procuring
things twice. Some elements of the security system
will be procured and described in specification
sections that are prepared by other design disciplines

March, 23, 2007 114

 Procurement Phase
There are three major forms of procurement:
 sole source,
source
 request for proposal,
proposal and
 invitation for bid,
bid
…with many variations among them. Each
has its own benefits but choosing the form of
procurement for a project should be done
before the start of the design phase because
the type of procurement will affect the level of
detail required in the construction documents.

March, 23, 2007 115

 Procurement Phase (cont.)

Sole Source: For small projects, this may be

the most appropriate method of procurement.
The organization pre-qualifies a security
system contractor, works with the contractor
to design the system and negotiates the cost
of equipment supply and installation.

March, 23, 2007 116

 Procurement Phase (cont.)

Request for Proposal: Commonly used by

non-government organizations. A full set of
construction documents is prepared but the
specifications can be generic and
performance based —that is, without the
need to list specific component manufacturers
and model numbers.

March, 23, 2007 117

 Procurement Phase (cont.)

Invitation for Bid: Is commonly used by

government and other organizations whose
procurement procedures require that projects
be competitively bid and that the award be
given to the lowest qualified, responsive
bidder.

March, 23, 2007 118

 Testing, Warranty & Maintenance

Before the owner or owner ’s representative

is requested to witness acceptance testing,
preliminary testing should be performed by
the contractor to ensure that all systems,
subsystems and components are working as
specified.

March, 23, 2007 119

Testing, Warranty & Maintenance (cont.)
Warranty specifications should include:
 the warranty start date and duration;
 maintenance performed during warranty; and
 required response protocol to system
problems.
 Maintenance requirements should be described
even if maintenance is not contracted for until
after the warranty period and should include the
frequency of periodic maintenance —monthly or
quarterly —and specific tasks performed. After
warranty frequent tests of the security system
and all of its components are essential in the
implementation of the assets protection program

March, 23, 2007 120

Testing, Warranty & Maintenance (cont.)

Tests should result in the following:

– Risks or hazards still existing are identified

and system deficiencies are revealed.

– System changes required to accommodate

facility or organization revisions become
apparent

March, 23, 2007 121

End of Slide presentation for
Physical Security module

Time for a practice test

March, 23, 2007 122