Nervous System

Anatomy ,Physiology & Clinical Aspects

By Dr Vachini Bhatt
 The Nervous System

• Human nervous system two major parts: central

nervous system and peripheral nervous system
 Nervous System Organization

Central Nervous System

Brain

Spinal cord
 Nervous System Organization

Peripheral Nervous System

All neurons outside the CNS

• 31 pairs spinal nerves
• 12 pairs of cranial nerves
Brain

• It is one of the largest and most complex organ of the body

• It is composed of billions of Neurons
• Weight of brain in male 1336 gms
• Weight of brain in female 1198 gms
• There are 3 main divisions
• 1. cerebrum
• 2. cerebellum
• 3. brain stem
• Outer layer is called cerebral cortex
• Meninges : layers of membrane that protects brain and spinal cord
layers are Dura matter, Arachnoid matter and Pia matter
Cerebral Cortex - 4 Major Lobes

• Parietal
• Frontal
• Temporal
• Occipital
 Functions of the Cerebral
Cortex

Intellectual processes: thought, intelligence.

Language, memory, decision making, emotions
Problem solving, planning, control of voluntary
body movements.
Functions related to senses
Cerebrum

• It comprises of Grey matter and White matter at its centre.

• It is the largest part of the brain
• It initiates and coordinates movements and regulates temperature,
speech, judgement, vision, hearing, touch….
• 3 parts
• Forebrain
• Midbrain
• Hindbrain
 Cerebellum

• Located behind the brainstem

• Helps monitor and regulate
movement
• Integrates postural adjustments,
maintenance of equilibrium,
perception of speed, and other
reflexes related to fine tuning of
movement.
 Brainstem

• Thalamus
• Relays stimuli received from all sensory neurons to
cortex for interpretation
• Relays signals from the cerebral cortex to the proper
area for further processing
• Hypothalamus
• Monitors many parameters
• temperature, blood glucose levels, various hormone levels
• Helps maintain homeostasis
• Signals the pituitary via releasing factors
• Function of pituitary gland is Growth and Metabolism, reproduction,
manage energy and maintain Homeostasis
• Signals the lower neural centers
• Giving signals to muscles to perform
Brainstem

• Composed of midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata

• Maintains vegetative functioning
• Where is respiratory control center?
• Where is cardiovascular control center?
• Reflexes
• Functions of mid brain : center for visual and auditory reflexes
• Functions of pons: Manage pain signals, influence your sleep cycle, sets
brain level of alertness when u wake up
• Functions of medulla : control vital processes like heartbeat, breathing,
blood pressure
Spinal Cord

• Contains both gray and white matter

• Gray matter is H-shape in core of cord
Gray Matter

• It is the major component of CNS.

• It is a home for neural cells, axon, dendrites and synapses
• It is gray in color because of high concentration of neuronal cell
bodies
• It process information. And release new information
• It control movement, memory and emotions
 White Matter

• It contains many nerve fibers , which are extension of

neuron and that are sheathed or covered by white
myelin sheath. So it is called white matter.
• It helps in transfer the information
• Brain and spinal cord both consist white matter
Peripheral Nervous System
• 31 pairs of spinal nerves &
12 pairs of cranial nerves.
• Each spinal nerve is a
mixed nerve containing:
• Somatic afferent
• Visceral afferent
• Somatic efferent
• Visceral efferent
• Which is a motor fiber?
Somatic Nervous System
• Somatic nervous system
consist of nerves that go to
skin and muscles and is
involved in conscious
activities.
• It associates with voluntary
control of body movements
via skeletal muscles.
Autonomic Nervous System Subdivisions

The autonomic nervous system consist of nerves that connects the

CNS to the visceral organs such as heart, stomach, intestine….etc
It mediates unconscious activities.
Neurons
• Neurons are information
messengers, they transmit
the information between
the brain and rest of
nervous system.

• Two basic types

1. Motor
2. Sensory
• Three basic parts
1. Axons
2. Dendrites
3. Soma or Cell Bodies
Sensory Nerves

Sensory nerves carry signals to

your brain to help you touch,
taste , smell and to see.
Motor Nerves

Motor nerves carry signals to your muscles or glands to help you

move and function.
 Neuron Parts:

• Axon
• Dendrites
• Soma / Body
• Synapse
Synapse

• Junction between the dendrites of one neuron and the axon of a

second neuron
• Nerves communicate by releasing chemical messenger at synapse
Synapse

Important neurotransmitters:
Monoamines
Neuropeptides
Nitric oxide
Diseases of Nervous system

• Definition
• A condition characterized by recurrent seizures
(two or more) result from an abnormal and
excessive neuronal discharge. epileptic seizures are
a sign of cerebral dysfunction
Characteristics

• Three main characteristics of epileptic seizures are:

• the loss of control (in various degrees),
• the episodic nature of the attacks (they start suddenly and they terminate
suddenly), and
• the repetitive clinical pattern (attacks are identical from episode to
episode).
Types

• Localized: caused by localized area of brain

dysfunction (the epileptic focus in cerebral cortex and
do not spread) and symptoms are related to area
involved.
• Generalized: The abnormal impulses originate from the
cerebral cortex and spread
Clinical signs

• Localized motor activity e.g., tonic seizures of one leg

or facial twitching
• autonomic signs such as pupil dilatation, salivation or
vomiting
Definition
• Inflammation of meninges of brain
(pia, dura and arachnoid) that may
involve brain (meningioencephalitis)
or brain and spinal cord
(meningioencephalomyelitis),
characterized clinically by
hyperesthesia and rigidity of the neck
Etiology and pathogenesis

• Bacterial infections of the CNS most often

occur via:
1. hematogenous spread from distant foci
within the body (e.g., lung or splenic
abscess, vegetative endocarditis,
pleuritis, and urinary tract infections),
2. by direct extension from sinuses, ears
and eyes, as a result of trauma,
3. meningeal spread with entry along
nerve roots, or
4. from contaminated surgical instruments
(e.g., spinal needle)
Bacteria causing meningitis

1. Pasteurella sp (e.g., P. multocida),

2. Staphylococcus
1. aureus,
2. Staphylococcus epidermidis,
3. Staphylococcus albus,
3. Actinomyces sp, Nocardia sp,
4. Escherichia coli,
5. Streptococcus sp (e.g., S. pneumoniae)
6. Klebsiella sp
 Clinical signs

1. hyperesthesia,
2. fever,
3. cervical pain, and frequently, cervical
rigidity.
4. In addition, vomiting, bradycardia,
anorexia, occasional cranial nerve
deficits, and seizures may be observed.
1. Seizures may be caused by high fever, brain edema,
or inflammation,
2. while vomiting may result from increased intracranial
pressure or from direct effects on the vomiting center
5. Stiff gait and walking with caution (as
walking on eggs)
Diagnosis

• Case history
• Clinical signs
• CSF examination for
• color, protein and Gram stain
• Cells (neutrophilia if bacteria is the cause)
ENCEPHALITIS

Definition
• Encephalitis is inflammation of brain tissue that may
extend to spinal cord (encephalomyelitis) causing
seizures, circling and blindness
Clinical Signs

1. Seizures,
2. Depression,
3. Abnormal gait and incoordination
4. Blindness,
5. Walking in circle
6. Staring off into space,
7. Pressing their heads against the wall or
furniture,
8. Ataxia (a staggering walk), and
9. Intermittent screaming.