Chapter Thirteen coordination

and response
 coordination and response:

13.1 Coordination in animals page162

13.2 The human nervous system page162
13.4 The Endocrine system
page170
13.1 Coordination in
animals
 13.1 Coordination in animals

Coordination in animals (page 162):

The endocrine system and the nervous system are the two different
coordination systems of the body. They are responsible for the regulation
and control of body systems and of behavior. Homeostasis involves both
systems which frequently work together to coordinate responses to stimuli

Stimuli are the changes in an organisms environment (singular: stimulus)

The ability to react to stimuli is a basic characteristic of all living

organisms, the stimuli may occur internally or externally and they lead to
a response from the Organism

In the nervous system stimuli are received by sensory receptors and the
response is carried out by effectors such as muscle and glands
 13.1 Coordination in animals

Coordination in animals (page 162):

Key words:

Stimuli are the changes in an organisms environment (singular: stimulus)

Receptors are the cells that detect the stimuli

Effectors are the organs such as glands and muscles, that bring about
responses

Responses are the actions as a result for a stimuli taken by glands (secret
chemicals) and muscles (contraction for movement)
 13.1 Coordination in animals

Coordination in animals (page 162):

Receptors and effectors are often some distance apart and form of
communication is therefore needed between them if the Organism is to
respond effectively.

This communication is electrical and uses nerve impulses which are rapid
and allow a fast response.

The impulses travel along nerve cells (neurons) to reach their destination
effector.

If the effector is an endocrine gland the destination target cells may also
be some distance away. The form of communication is chemical and is
slower as it uses hormones that travel in the bloodstream.
 13.1 Coordination in animals

Coordination in animals (page 162):

Feature Endocrine system Nervous system

Chemical, involving cell signaling Electrical, involving flow of ions across
Communication molecules known as hormones membranes to generate nerve impulses

Along axons (nerve fibers) of

Mode of transmission Blood in the circulatory system
neurons (nerve cells)
Relatively slow, slower then nerve Fast, faster than hormonal
speed of Transmission
impulse conduction transmission
Hormones travel to all parts of the
Parts of the body that Nerve impulses travel to specific
body, but only target cells, tissues
respond destination parts of the body
or organs respond

Response Response is slower and can be long Response is rapid and short lived
lasting
Areas of the body Effects can be widespread Effects are more localized
affected by response
Effect is longer and may be Effect is shorter and is temporary
Duration of effect (reversible)
permanent (irreversible)
13.2 The human
nervous system
The human nervous system (page 162):
13.2 The human nervous system

As animal species became more complex and the number of receptors and effectors increased,
it became more efficient to link each receptor and effector to a central control center.

The nervous system has two major divisions:

The central nervous system which is The peripheral nervous system which is
made up of the brain and spinal cord made up of pairs of nerves that originate
from either the brain or the spinal cord

The peripheral nervous system is divided into:

The sensory (afferent) nervous system The motor (efferent) nervous system
which carries nerve impulses towards the which carries nerve impulses away from
central nervous system the central nervous system

The motor nervous system can be further subdivided into:

The somatic nervous system which carries The autonomic nervous system which
nerve impulses to skeletal muscles and is carries nerve impulses to glands, smooth
under voluntary control muscles and cardiac muscles and it is
involuntary
The human nervous system (page 162):
13.2 The human nervous system

The central nervous system The peripheral nervous system

Brain

Spinal cord

Nerves
The human nervous system (page 162):
13.2 The human nervous system

Interactions between components

Nervous organization
of the nervous system
The human nervous system (page 162):
13.2 The human nervous system

The central nervous system is connected to different parts of the body by nerves that
make up the peripheral nervous system, cranial nerves and spinal nerves are in pairs on
either side of the brain and spinal cord respectively.

Cranial nerves link the brain with all the organs in the head and also some in the thorax
and abdomen

spinal nerves link the brain to the arms thorax abdomen and legs and they leave the
spinal cord in pairs through spaces between the vertebrae.

Each nerve is made up of lots of nerve cells or neurons surrounded by protective fibrous
tube. Nerves are visible to the naked eye but neurons need microscope to be seen.
The human nervous system (page 162):
13.2 The human nervous system

Involuntary and voluntary actions:

We make two types of action:

1. some happen automatically without us having to think about them these are
involuntary actions that occur unconsciously.

Swallowing blinking breathing and the beating of the heart are for such actions that we
are not conscious if most of the time but we can choose to control occasionally.

Movement of food in the small intestine and of urine in the ureter or other involuntary
actions we cannot control by thinking about them.

2. voluntary actions are those we choose to make and the decisions to make them occur
in our brain
The human nervous system (page 162):
13.2 The human nervous system

when a person sits down on a sharp object such as a pin without realizing it, there is a
very quick automatic response that the person does not need to think about. This is an
example of simple reflex which is an involuntary action

the stimulus is the pin and receptors are pain sensors in the skin the effectors are the
muscles in the legs that cause the person to get up quickly

the sequence of Events is:

Stimulus Receptor coordinator effector response

the coordinator is the part that connects information about the stimulus to the effector
this always happens inside the central nervous system to allow connections with other
parts of the body and for the brain to be aware of stimuli
The human nervous system (page 162):
13.2 The human nervous system

Nerve cells (neurons):

In the nervous system, nerve impulses are transmitted within nerve cells, known as
neurons

Each neuron has a nerve fiber (axon) that carries the impulses

Neurons are specialized cells adapted to rapidly carry electrochemical changes called
nerve impulses from one part of the body to another.

The different types of cell in the nervous system need to communicate with each other.

Synapses between nerve cells occur where an impulse carried by one nerve cell needs to
be passed onto another nerve cell.
The human nervous system (page 162):
13.2 The human nervous system

Nerve cells (neurons):

A cell Body: contains a nucleus, mitochondria

and large amounts of RER grouped to form
Nissl’s granules (associated with the production
of proteins and neurotransmitters).

Dendrons: small extensions of the cell body that

sub-divide into smaller branched fibers called
dendrites that carry nerve impulses towards the
cell body.

Axons: a single long fiber that carries nerve

impulses away from the cell body

Schwann cells: protect and provide insulation

and play a part in nerve regeneration.

The structure of neuron

The human nervous system (page 162):
13.2 The human nervous system

Nerve cells (neurons):

Myelin sheath: a group layers and membranes

build up around the axon and they are rich in a
lipid known as myelin.

Nodes of Ranvier: spaces between adjacent

Schwann cells that lacks myelin and forming
gaps 2-3 μm long

Neurons with a myelin sheath are called

myelinated neurons and transmit nerve impulses The structure of neuron
faster than neurons without the myelin sheath.
The human nervous system (page 162):
13.2 The human nervous system

Nerve cells (neurons):

Neurons can be classified according

to their functions:

Sensory neurons: transmit nerve impulses from a

receptor to the central nervous system

Motor neurons (effector neurons): transmit nerve

impulses from a relay or sensory neuron to an
effector such as a gland or a muscle.

Intermediate neurons (relay neurons): transmit

nerve impulses between neurons such as from a
sensory to a motor neuron.
The human nervous system (page 162):
13.2 The human nervous system

Reflex arc:

An involuntary response to a stimulus is called a reflex. The pathway of

neurons is a reflex arc.

The simplest reflex arc is which involves only a sensory and a motor
neuron.

Other reflexes involve an intermediate neuron. A spinal reflex involves the

spinal cord (example next slide)
 13.2 The human nervous system
Reflex arc:

Stimulus: heat from touching the hot object

Sensory receptor: Temp. receptors stimulate the transmission of nerve impulses in sensory neurons
Sensory neuron: impulses pass to the spinal cord

Intermediate neuron: link the sensory neuron via synapses to the motor neuron

Motor neuron: transmits impulses away from the spinal cord to the biceps muscle in the forearm

Effector: the biceps muscle of the forearm is stimulated to respond by contracting

Effect of response: the hand is raised away from the hot object
 12.3 The human excretory system

Questions page164:
13.1 give two examples of effectors?

Any muscles or glands

13.2 What are the two main communication systems in an animals body?

The nervous system and the endocrine system.

13.3 list three ways in which neurons are similar to other cells

Nucleus, cytoplasm and a cell membrane

13.4 list three ways in which neurons are specialized to carry out their function of
transmitting electrical impulses very quickly.

They have long axons, they may have myelin sheath around the axon to speed up the
transmission, they have many dendrites to receive nerve impulses from other cells
 13.2 The human nervous system

Questions page164:
13.5 what is the function of the central nervous system?

The CNS receives inputs from different receptors which it integrates and produces
nerve impulses to send to appropriate effectors

13.6 where are the cell bodies of each of these types of neuron found: a. sensory neuron
b. relay neuron c. motor neuron

a. In a small swelling just outside the spinal cord.

b. In the central nervous system.
c. In the central nervous system

13.7 what is the value of reflex actions?

They produce very quick, automatic responses with no time wasted in making decisions.

13.8 Describe two reflex actions.

The human nervous system (page 162):
13.2 The human nervous system

The Nerve impulse:

Nerve impulse may be defined as a self propagating wave of electrical

excitation that travels along the surface of the Axon membrane

It is a temporary reversal of the electrical potential difference across the

Axon membrane

This reversal is between a state called resting potential and another called
the action potential

Conduction of nerve impulses relies on passive current flow along axons.

To boost current flow action potentials occur at intervals. An action

potential is the net effect of ion flow across the Axon membrane
The human nervous system (page 162):
13.2 The human nervous system

The Nerve impulse ( resting potential):

The inside of the neuron is negatively charged with respect to the outside so the resting
potential is usually written as-65 millivolts or -70 millivolts

The resting potential is the result of an unequal distribution of ions across membranes.

the factors that contribute to a resting potential of a neuron are (figure next slide):

1. the presence of many organic anions inside the cell such as negatively charged
proteins
2. (Pump proteins) pump out 3 Na+ for every 2 K+ pump in (sodium-potassium pumps)

3. the impermeability of the membrane to ions that the phospholipid bilayer has a
hydrophobic core which does not permit the movement of ions.

4. voltage gated channel proteins are shut so sodium and potassium ions cannot diffuse
through them.
The human nervous system (page 162):
13.2 The human nervous system

The Nerve impulse ( resting potential):

the factors that contribute to a resting

potential of a neuron are:

5. the leakage of some potassium ions

through the potassium leak channel
proteins.
The human nervous system (page 162):
13.2 The human nervous system

The Nerve impulse (Action potential):

the energy conversion that occurs when a stimulus is received by a receptor leads to a
temporary reversal of the charges on the Axon membrane.

As a result the negative charge of -65 mV inside the membrane becomes a positive
charge of around +40 mV this is known as the action potential.

In this condition the membrane is said to be depolarized, this depolarization involves the
voltage gated channels.

The sequence of events of action potential is described in the next slides.

The human nervous system (page 162):
13.2 The human nervous system

The Nerve impulse (Action potential):

1. At resting potential some potassium

ion channels (leak channels) are open but
the potassium voltage gated and sodium
voltage gated channels are closed
The human nervous system (page 162):
13.2 The human nervous system

The Nerve impulse (Action potential):

2. As a result of the stimulus some voltage

gated sodium channels in the Axon membrane
open and therefore sodium ions diffuse in
through the channels along their electrochemical
gradient being positively charged they begin the
reversal in the potential difference across the
membrane and the membrane depolarizes
voltage gated potassium channels remain closed
The human nervous system (page 162):
13.2 The human nervous system

The Nerve impulse (Action potential):

3. As sodium ions enter so more voltage

gated sodium channels open causing an
even greater influx of sodium ions. An
action potential will only occur if the
membrane depolarizes enough to allow the
remaining voltage gated sodium channels to
open this is known as the threshold
potential and occurs at around -50 mV.
The human nervous system (page 162):
13.2 The human nervous system

The Nerve impulse (Action potential):

4. Once the action potential of around

+40mV has been established (depolarization
has occurred) the voltage gates on sodium
channels close (so further influx of sodium is
prevented) and the voltage gates on the
potassium channels began to open
The human nervous system (page 162):
13.2 The human nervous system

The Nerve impulse (Action potential):

5. With some voltage gated potassium

channels now open this causes the other
voltage gated channels to open and more
potassium ions diffuse out causing
repolarization of the Axon membrane
The human nervous system (page 162):
13.2 The human nervous system

The Nerve impulse (Action potential):

6. The continuous movement of potassium ions to

the outside will make the inside more negative
(relative to the outside) than usual this is called
(hyperpolarization). the gates on the potassium
channels now close and the activities of the sodium
potassium pumps cause Na+ to be pumped out and
K+ in. the Axon membrane returns to a resting
potential and the axon is said to be repolarized
The human nervous system:
13.2 The human nervous system

The structure of a synapse

A synapse is the point where the axon of one

neuron connects with the dendrite of another or
with an effector.

Chemical synapses transmit impulses from one

neuron to the next by means of chemicals known
as neurotransmitters.

In some synapses the neurotransmitter is

acetylcholine.

The gap that separates neurons is called synaptic

cleft.
The human nervous system:
13.2 The human nervous system

Synaptic transmission:

1. The arrival of the action potential at the end of the presynaptic neuron causes
depolarization of the presynaptic membrane.

Voltage-gated calcium channels open

and calcium ions enter the synaptic
knob down their concentration
gradient.

Synaptic vesicles containing

acetylcholine are at the presynaptic
membrane ready to release the
neurotransmitter.
The human nervous system:
13.2 The human nervous system

Synaptic transmission:

2. The influx of calcium ions into the presynaptic neuron causes synaptic vesicles to fuse
with presynaptic membrane, so releasing acetylcholine by exocytosis into the synaptic
cleft.

Acetylcholine diffuses across the

synaptic cleft to the postsynaptic
neuron.
The human nervous system:
13.2 The human nervous system

Synaptic transmission:

3. Acetylcholine molecules binds with complementary receptor sites on the proteins that
make up each sodium channel on the postsynaptic membrane.

This causes the sodium channels to

open, allowing sodium ions to diffuse
in rapidly down a concentration
gradient

Potassium ions are also able to enter.

The human nervous system:
13.2 The human nervous system

Synaptic transmission:

4. The influx of sodium ions generates an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) in the
postsynaptic neuron

If enough EPSPs are generated in

quick succession (one after the other)
to reach the threshold, then an action
potential is generated in the
postsynaptic neuron.
The human nervous system:
13.2 The human nervous system

Synaptic transmission:

5. The enzyme acetylcholinesterase hydrolyses acetylcholine into choline and acetate,

which diffuse back across the synaptic cleft into the presynaptic neuron (recycling).
The human nervous system:
13.2 The human nervous system

Synaptic transmission:

6. ATP released by mitochondria is used to drive recombination of choline and acetate

into acetylcholine.

This is stored in synaptic vesicles for

future use.

Sodium channels close in the absence

of acetylcholine in the receptor sites.