DRYING…

Nirav J Bhavsar
Department of Chemical Engineering
Dharmsinh Desai University

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DRYIN
G
Drying is defined
as removal of the
liquid from a
material by
application of
heat, & is
accomplished by
transfer of a
liquid from the
surface into an
unsaturated
vapor phase.

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INTRODUCTION…

 Removal of moisture from a substance.

 Drying is an operation in which a liquid usually moisture is

removed from a wet solid in equipment termed dryers .

 Drying of material – Solids, Semi solids, paste, Slurry.

 Used in – Chemical , Petrochemical, Pharmaceutical, Food and process industries,

Pulp and paper industry.

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INTRODUCTION…
Selection of the drying method and equipment depend on
the following factors :
1. The heat sensitivity of the product .
2. Its physical characteristics prior to drying .
3. The nature of the solvent to be removed .
4. The scale of operation .
5. Available sources of heat .

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Mechanism of drying solids …
Drying involve both a. Heat b. Mass transfer .

 Heat must be transferred to the material to be dried in order to supply the

heat required for vaporization of the moisture .
 Mass transfer is involved in the diffusion of water through the material to
the evaporation surface and subsequent evaporation of water from the
surface and diffusion of the resultant vapor into the passing air stream

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Purpose of Drying…
 To purify the crystalline product

 Storage of dry solid is easy compare to wet solid

 The transportation cost of dry material is less.

 To obtain the desired properties of pharma products(flowability,

compressibility.) such as tablets , syrup etc.

 Presence of traces of moisture may lead to corrosion in case of

chlorine gas so to prevent corrosion drying is essential.

 Sometimes, the drying is the essential part of the process say

drying of paper.

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Drying and Evaporation are distinguishable by
relative quantities of liquid removed from the solid.

In evaporation water boils until it reaches it

boiling point while drying just passage of heat until
the substance get dried.

EVAPORATION DRYING
In evaporation, the product In drying, dry solid is
obtained is either the product.
concentrated solution or
suspension or wet slurry.
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Difference between drying and evaporation
 In drying processes, the main operation usually carried out on solid
materials, e.g. powders, or products.

 Drying in most of the cases means the removal of relatively small

amounts of water from solids .Evaporation include the removal of
large amounts of water from solutions.

 In most cases, drying involves the removal of water at temperatures

below its boiling point, whereas evaporation means the removal of
water by boiling a solution.

 In drying , water is usually removed by circulating air over the

material in order to carry away the water vapour , while in
evaporation , water is removed from the material as pure water
vapour mixed with other gases.

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  Non-thermal methods of drying:-

Expression
Extraction
Adsorption
Absorption

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Expression

Squeezing
of a wetted
sponge

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Adsorption…
Of water from
solvent by use of
desiccants, such
as anhydrous
calcium chloride.

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  Extraction… of liquid from solid by
use of solvent

• Absorption… of moisture from gases by

passage through sulfuric acid column

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Applications….
Preservation of drug products
Preparation of bulk drugs
Improved handling
Improved characteristics

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Preservation
of drug
products….

Drying is necessary in
order to avoid
deterioration. A few
examples are…
--blood products,
tissues… undergo
microbial growth
--effervescent tablets,
synthetic & semi
synthetic drugs undergo
chemical decomposition.
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Preparation of
bulk drugs….
Drying is the final stage
of processing . Eg:
*dried aluminium
hydroxide
*spray dried lactose
*powdered extracts (in
fig..chamomile
powder), e.t.c

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Improved handling….
Removal of moisture makes the material light in
weight and reduces bulk.
Thus cost of transportation will be less & storage will
be efficient.
If moisture is present, size reduction of drugs is
difficult.
Drying reduces the moisture content.

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Improved characteristics… drying produces
materials of spherical shape, uniform size, free
flowing & enhanced solubility. Some specific areas
of imp are…
1. Granules are dried to improve the fluidity &
compression characteristics. These are essential
for production of tablets and capsules.
2. Viscous & sticky materials are not free
flowing. Drying modifies these characteristics

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  Drying involves both heat transfer as well as
mass transfer

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 DEFINITIONS…
 Moisture content (wet basis):
[kg Moisture/kg wet solid]*100
[kg moisture/(kg dry solid + kg moisture)]*100
100 X/(1 + X)
 Moisture content (dry basis):
[kg Moisture/kg dry solid]*100
100 X

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Equilibrium…
Drying equilibrium means the relation between the
moisture content of a solid and the humidity of the
ambient drying medium.
Drying or loss of moisture by vaporization occurs
when the moisture content of solid is higher than the
equilibrium value of the ambient media.
The moisture present in solid exerts a pressure which
is equal to or less than the vapor pressure of pure
water.

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Equilibrium…
The moisture contained in a wet solid exerts a vapor
pressure say “p” which is the function of nature of
moisture and solid and temperature.
The wet solid is exposed to hot air or gas containing
vapor have partial pressure “po”
The solid will either lose moisture or gain moisture
from the air until the vapor pressure of the mositure
of the solid becomes equal to partial pressure “po”
The solid and gas are said to be in equilibrium and
moisture present in solid is known as equilibrium
moisture.
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 Equilibrium…

Relative humidity

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 In given fig, the moisture in each case is water.
 The equilibrium partial pressure of the water vapor is divided
by the vapor pressure of pure water to give relative humidity
or relative saturation.
 For example, wood contain initially a very high moisture 0.3-
0.35 kg water/kg dry solid.
 If it is exposed to a continuous supply of air having RH of
0.6, the wood would lose moisture by evaporation until its
equilibrium moisture reaches to 0.6 (Point A).

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 Further exposure of air even for long period would not bring
about additional lose of moisture.
 The moisture content below point B – Bound moisture.
 Moisture content inside the cell walls of plant
structure.
 Moisture in loose chemical combination with the
cellulosic material
 Moisture held in small capillaries or crevasses
throughout the solid surface.
 The moisture content above point B – unbound moisture,
exerts vapor pressure of pure water at prevailing temperature.

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INSOLUBLE SOLIDS…
 The equilibrium moisture for a given species of solid may depend
upon the particle size or specific surface, if the moisture is largely
physically adsorbed.
 Different solids have different equilibrium moisture curves.
 Inorganic solid (Zinc Oxide) which are insoluble in liquid with no
special adsorptive properties shows relatively low equilibrium
moisture content.
 Spongy, cellular material, tobacco reveal large equilibrium
moisture content.

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Types of Moisture…

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Types of Moisture…
 Unbound Moisture: This refers to the moisture contained by a substance
which exerts an equilibrium vapor pressure equal to that of pure liquid at
the same temperature.

 Bound moisture: This refers to the moisture contained by a substance

which exerts an equilibrium vapor pressure less than that of pure liquid at
the same temperature.

 Free Moisture: Free moisture is the moisture contained by the substance which is
in excess of the equilibrium moisture (X- X*).

 Equilibrium Moisture: This is the moisture content of the a substance when at

equilibrium with a given partial pressure of the vapor.

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 Rate of Drying…

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Rate of drying in a bed of powder:

The rate at which drying occurs has been found to show certain
phases
in which the change in moisture content is plotted against time.
Rate of drying gives three different region as shown in figure.
1. A-B region : Warming up period during which the temperature
becomes equal to the temperature of the drying air.
2. B-C region: Constant rate period during which layers of water over
the surface is being evaporated. The rate of drying is constant from
B to C as the drying occurs from a saturated surface.
3. C-E region: Falling rate period which is composed of first falling arte
period(CD) and second falling rate period(DE).
From point “C” onwards dry patches are formed over the surface of
solid. Hence rate of drying decreases for the unsaturated surface
(unsaturated surface drying). After “D” moisture present in internal
structure is forced to carry out over the surface (Internal movement
of moisture)
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Selection of drying equipment…
Drying equipment can be classified according to the
following design and operating features:
1. Batch or continuous.
2. Physical state of the feed: liquid, slurry, wet solid.
3. Method of conveyance of the solid: belt, rotary,
fluidised.
4. Heating system: conduction, convection, radiation.

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Selection of drying equipment…
Batch dryers are normally used for small-scale production and
where the drying cycle is likely to be long.

Continuous dryers require less labour, less floor space; and

produce a more uniform quality product.

When the feed is solids, it is important to present the material

to the dryer in a form that will produce a bed of solids with an
open, porous, structure.

For pastes and slurries, some form of pretreatment equipment

will normally be needed, such as extrusion or granulation.

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Selection of drying equipment…
The main factors to be considered when selecting a
dryer are:
1. Feed condition: solid, liquid, paste, powder, crystals.
2. Feed concentration, the initial liquid content.
3. Product specification: dryness required, physical form.
4. Throughput required.
5. Heat sensitivity of the product.
6. Nature of the vapour: toxicity, flammability.
7. Nature of the solid: flammability (dust explosion
hazard), toxicity.

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Tray Dryer (Batch Dryer)
By method of operation
Batch drying
Continuous drying
By method of supplying heat
Direct drier
Indirect drier
By nature of substance to be dried
Rigid solid –wood, fiber board
Flexible material – cloth, paper
Granular material – crystal mass
Thick paste or slurry or solution

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Tray Dryer (Batch Dryer)…

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Tray Dryer (Batch Dryer)
Also referred as shelf dryer, cabinet dryer or compartment
dryer.
Trays are installed inside the cabinet on which wet material
is spread or distributed evenly.
Used for drying small quantities of solids, and a for a
wide range of materials.
Nos of trays installed are strongly depends on the capacity
of material to be dried.
Generally 12,24,48 and 96 trays are installed inside the
cabinet based on heating load required.

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Demerits of tray drier
Old & conventional drying method
inadequate & troublesome.
They also occupy large space
Very high & uneven drying times
Involved high labour requirement

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Drum Dryer (Film Drying)
It consists of a drum of about 0, 75-1.5 m in diameter and 2-4 m in
length, heated internally, usually by steam, and rotated on its
longitudinal axis.

 Operation: The liquid is applied to the surface and spread to a film,

this may be done in various ways, but the simplest method is that
shown in the diagram, where the drum dips into a feed pan. Drying
rate is controlled by using a suitable speed of rotation and the drum
temperature. The product is scraped from the surface of the drum by
means of a doctor knife.

Fig. Drum dryer

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Drum Dryer…

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 Advantages of the drum dryer
1- The method gives rapid drying, the thin film spread over a
large area resulting in rapid heat and mass transfer.
2- The equipment is compact, occupying much less space than other
dryers.
3- Heating time is short, being only a few seconds.
4- The drum can be enclosed in a vacuum jacket, enabling the
temperature of drying to be reduced.
5- The product is obtained in flake form, which is convenient for
many purposes.

 The only disadvantage : is that operating conditions are critical and

it is necessary to introduce careful control on feed rate, film thickness,
speed of drum rotation and drum temperature.

 Uses: It can handle a variety of materials, either as solutions or as

suspensions e.g. starch products, ferrous salts and suspensions .

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Spray Dryer…
 Normally used for liquid and dilute slurry feeds, but can be designed
to handle any material that can be pumped.

 The material to be dried is atomized in a nozzle, or by a disc-type

atomizer, positioned at the top of a vertical cylindrical vessel.

 Hot air flows up the vessel (in some designs downward) and conveys
and dries the droplets.

 The liquid vaporises rapidly from the droplet surface and open,
porous particles are formed.

 The dried particles are removed in a cyclone separator or bag filter.

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Spray Dryer…

 The spray dryer provides a large surface area for heat and mass
transfer by atomizing the liquid to small droplets. These are sprayed
into a stream of hot air, so that each droplet dries to a solid particle.
 The drying chamber resembles the cyclone ensuring good circulation
of air, to facilitate heat and mass transfer, and that dried particles are
separated by the centrifugal action.....

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  The character of the particles is controlled by the droplet form;
hence the type of atomizer is important.
 Rotary atomizer is preferable than jet which is easily blocked. Liquid
is fed to the disc of the atomizer which is rotated at high speed (up to
20,000 rpm), a film is formed and spread as uniform spray. In
addition, the rotary atomizer is effective with suspensions. It can be
operated efficiently at various feed rates.

 Fig. Rotary atomizer

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 Advantages of the spray drying process
 1-The droplets are small, giving a large surface area for heat
transfer, so that evaporation is very rapid. The actual drying time
of a droplet is only a fraction of a second, and the overall time in
the dryer is only a few seconds.

 2- Because evaporation is very rapid, the droplets do not attain a

high temperature, most of the heat being used as latent heat of
vaporization.

 3- Suitable for drying heat-sensitive materials, and good control of

the product particle size, bulk density.

 4- The powder will have a uniform and controllable particle size.

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  5- The product is free-flowing, with almost spherical particles, and is
especially convenient for tablet manufacture.

 6- Labour costs are low, the process yielding a dry, free-flowing

powder from a dilute solution, in a single operation with no handling.

 7- It is possible to operate spray driers aseptically using heated

filtered air to dry products such as serum hydrolysate.

 8- Some spray driers operate in a closed-circuit mode with an inert

gas to minimize oxidation of the product. Volatile solvents can be
recovered from such systems.

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 Disadvantages
 The equipment is very bulky, connected to accessories, fans, heaters.
 That is made it expensive.

Uses
 Drying of any substance in solution or in suspension form.

 It is most useful for drying of thermolabile materials e.g. antibiotics.

 Suitable for large quantities solution.

 Suitable for both soluble and insoluble substances e.g. citric acid, gelatin,
starch.

 It can produce spherical particles in the respiratory range e.g. dry powder
inhalers.

 Drying of milk, soap and detergents which is pharmaceutically related

compounds.

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 Rotary Dryer..
Most important group of dryer suitable for handling free
flowing granular material.
Granular material is tumbled from one end to other without
concern over breakage.
The wet solid is introduced at one end of rotating cylinder
and hot air from other side.
The cylinder is slightly slanted in order to move material
freely from one end to other.
Lifting flights are provided inside the cylinder to lift the
material and move forward through hot air.
It can not be used for sticky or gummy material.
 Disadvantages: a non-uniform residence time, dust generation and
high noise levels.
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Rotary Dryer..

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 Rotary Dryer..

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Triple pass rotary drum dryer

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Types of Rotary Dryer..
1. Direct Heat, counter current flow
 Material heated to high temperature like minerals, sand, clays etc
are treated with hot flue gas used as a drying gas.
 Material heated to low temperature like ammonium sulfate, cane
sugar are treated with hot air.

2. Direct Heat, cocurrent flow

 Material which are prone to damage at high temperature like
gypsum, iron pyrites, organic material such as peat and alfalfa
should be dried

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Types of Rotary Dryer..

3. Indirect Heat, counter current flow

 To avoid direct contact of material like pigments with high
temperature hot flue gas such kind of arrangement is used.

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Types of Rotary Dryer..
4. Direct Indirect Heat, counter current flow
 More economical than direct dryer especially when fuel cost is very high and when large percentage of
moisture must be removed from solid.

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  Works on principle of Air Fluidization (suspended in an
upward moving heated gas system)
 Suitable for drying granules, crystalline, coarse or similar
materials
 Granular solids become fluidized by hot air ,dried and
cooled in fluidized bed as shown in fig.
 Solids must have free flowing characteristics with size
range from 0.1 to 36 mm
 Principle characteristics of such beds include cross flow of
the solid and hot air.
 Used in Pharmaceuticals, Fine Chemicals, Dyes, Food &
Allied Industries.
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Advantages…
Uniform drying
Residence time of solid is controlled easily from
second to hours.
Can be operated at any gas temperature.

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Pneumatic Dryer…
 Also known as Flash dryer
 Operating principle is same as spray
dryer.
 Wet Solid is dispersed in upward
flowing hot air stream by suitable
feeder.
 Acts as a pneumatic conveyor and
dryer.
 Contact times are short, and this limits
the size of particle that can be dried.
 Suitable for very fine and heat sensitive
materials that must be dried rapidly.
 Thermal efficiency of this type is
generally low.

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Pneumatic Dryer…

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Conveyer dryer…

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Conveyer dryer…
The solids are fed on to an endless, perforated, conveyor belt,
through which hot air is forced.
The belt is housed in a long rectangular cabinet, which is
divided up into zones, so that the flow pattern and temperature
of the drying air can be controlled.
The relative movement through the dryer of the solids and
drying air can be parallel or, more usually, counter-current.
High drying rates can be achieved, with good product-quality
control.
The disadvantages of this type of dryer are high initial cost and,
due to the mechanical belt, high maintenance costs.

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Conveyer dryer…

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 -Neerav
J .Bhavsar
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