COMMUNICATION

It is an activity in which one participates.

In terms of analysis, communication can be looked at or analysed in 2 ways:
i. As a transaction
ii. As a process
As a process, messages are used to generate meaning
Communication therefore, is considered as a process because:
i. It is an activity
ii. An exchange
iii. A set of behaviors
Communication as a process
David Berlo {1960} was one of the pioneers in the communication fields.
Berlo looked at communication as a process and viewed events and
relationships as:
i. Dynamic
ii. On going
iii. Ever changing
iv. Continuous
Berlo looked at communication as that which does not have a beginning
or ending.
Communication as a process cont.
It is not static…… it is moving
Interaction takes place where each of the participants is affected.
The participants have a common understanding of what is being said.

NOTE: It should be noted that communication starts before the words begin and
its message does not end.

Communication as a process may also mean that it is a two way process where
information (message) is sent from one person (the sender) through a channel
(medium) to another person ( the receiver) who reacts by giving a feedback
(response)
Communication
NOTE: Communication cannot take place if one person talks and
nobody listens or if one person writes and nobody reacts to what has
been said or written.
It is therefore a process that occurs when someone observes or
experiences behaviors and attributes meaning to that behavior.
Anything that one does or says is interpreted as a message, as long as
that behaviour affects or influences the behaviour of the other: ( this
means communication is taking place)
Communication
NOTE: We are all communicators, Everytime we knowingly or unknowingly
communicate by sending verbal or non verbal message to anyone,
communication is taking place.

Symbols might be verbal e.g. word; written; spoken.

Symbols might also be non verbal e.g. use of gestures; appearance.
Graphic e.g. tables; bar graphics; diagrams’

Communication therefore can further be defined as a deliberate or

accidental transfer of meaning.
Meaning in communication
NOTE:
 Meaning in communication is negotiated.
Negotiation ensures that the differing interpretations are unified.
Negotiation also ensures that at the end, both participants have
more or less the same idea of the subject under discussion.
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
MODEL
ELEMENTS OF THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS:
When one understands the elements process well, it becomes easier for one to
develop one’s communication abilities.
In any communication process, one is likely to find the following elements:
i. People (source and receiver)
ii. message – noise (detraction of disturbance)
iii. Channel
iv. Noise
v. Context
vi. Feedback
vii. Effect (reaction)
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Public interpersonal or small group communication take place between
and among all types of senders ( persons who encodes the message)
and receivers (persons who decodes the message) so there is giving out
and taking in of messages.
Although we would picture the communication process beginning with
the sender and ending with the receiver, is should be noted that during
communication, the role of the sender does not belong to one person
only – similarly, the role of the receiver. This is so because the process
of sending and receiving constantly change or that they are ever
MESSAGE
 During communication, we all send and receive both verbal and non verbal
messages
for example:
• words you use in your expressions
• How you express your feelings
• The sounds you make
• the way you sit and gesture
• Your touch
• your smell
All these communicate information
WHAT IS A MESSAGE?
A message is a content that is being communicated by a source
The message is carried by way of channel
 a channel is a means by which a message is transmitted
 Channels are the media we use to carry message – whether verbal or
non verbal.
MULTICHANNEL COMMUNICATORS
The primary means of communication we use to deliver messages
could be:
-Face to face interaction
-Computer mediated communication
-Instant messaging
-Television
-Radio e.t.c.
Therefore, we are multichannel communicators
CONTEXT
Communication always takes place in a context or setting
Context can influence the way you act towards others and it also
determines the nature of the communication you need to share with
others.
Certain environments might cause you to alter your posture, your
manner of speaking, your choice of dressing and even your means of
interaction.
Context can, sometimes, affect our communication without us
knowing or realising.
EFFECT
This refers to the communication outcome.
Communication has an effect and can be viewed as an exchange of
influences.
As people communicate, they are changed in some way by the
interaction.
An effect can be emotional, physical, cognitive or any combination of
the three.
Communication can elicit feelings of joy, anger or sadness
(emotional)
EFFECTS
Communication can cause you to fight, argue, become apathetic or
evade an issue (physical)
Communication can also lead to new insights, increased knowledge,
the formulation or reconsideration of opinions, silence or confusion
(cognitive)
The result of a communication encounter can also be any
combination of the three effects above.
Effects, however are not always visible or immediately observable.
FEEDBACK
Whenever we communicate with one or more persons, we receive
information in return.
The feedback can be verbal or non verbal
Feedback tells us how we are coming across.
Feedback can either cause us to change, continue or end a
transaction.
A smile, a frown, a chuckle, a sarcastic remark, a muttered thought, a
simply silence in response to something we did or said can cause us to
change, continue or end a transaction.
FEEDBACK cont.
Feedback that encourages us to continue behaving as we are is
positive; it enhances whatever behaviour is in progress.
In contrast, negative feedback extinguishes a behaviour because,
negative feedback serves as a corrective rather than a reinforcing
function.
 Negative feedback can help eliminate unwanted ineffective
behaviours.
NOTE: the terms positive or negative should not be interpreted as
good or bad; the terms simply reflect the way the responses affect
behaviour.
FEEDBACK cont.
To be an effective communicator, you must be sensitive to both types
of feedback; you must pay attention to your own reactions as well as
the reactions of others.
NOISE
In the communication process, noise is anything that interferes with
or distorts our ability to send or receive messages.
In the communication process therefore, noise does not ever
necessarily refer to the actual sound that we hear through our ears.
Internal noise attributed to the psychological make up, intellectual
ability or the physical condition of the communicators.
External noise is attributed to the environment
A few examples of noise in the communication process includes:
NOISE
 Distractions such as loud siren
 Disturbing odour
 Personal factors such as prejudice, day dreaming and feelings of
inadequacy.
 Semantic factors such as uncertainty about another person’ words
are supposed to mean.
PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN
COMMUNICATION
Communication is dynamic: this means that all elements constantly
interact with and affect each other.
All people are interconnected; whatever happens to one person
determines what happens to the other.
Communication is reversible: We can never take back something we
have said nor erase the effects of something we have done.
Communication has no opposite: even if we choose not to respond
verbally and maintain absolute silence, our lack of verbal response or
non verbal response is actually a response because it constitutes a
message, it influences others and by doing so, it communicates.
COMMUNICATION IS AFFECTED BY
CULTURE
How we formulate and interpret our messages is influenced by our
culture.
Cultural diversity, including race, ethnicity, gender and age, influences
the meanings we attribute to communication.
Every cultural group has its own rules (do’s and don’ts) or
preferences for interaction.
NOTE: When these are ignored or unknown, we are likely to
misinterpret the meaning of the message received hence, the impact of
the message is miscalculated.
COMMUNICATION IS INFLUENCED
BY ETHICS
Ethics are the moral principles, values and beliefs that the members
of the society use to guide behaviour.
Since communication has consequences, it therefore involves
judgements of right and wrong.
Ethics judge behaviour whenever the agreed standards of behaviour
are violated.
COMMUNICATION IS COMPETENCE
BASED
The responsibility of all the communicators is to prevent
communication process from failing.
Since we all have communication weaknesses and strengths as
human beings, we can all benefit from getting better at
communicating when we make a commitment to add our knowledge
and develop the skills to apply that knowledge across the different
arrays of communication situations or contexts.
COMMUNICATION IS BEING
TRANSFORMED BY MEDIA AND
TECHNOLOGY
Different channels of communication affects the way a sender
encodes and the way a receiver responds to a message
NOTE: The same words delivered face to face, on paper or via radio or
television, do not constitute the same message; the channel of
communication changes things;
For instance: terminating a relationship via a phone or an e mail is very
different from delivering such news in person.
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
There are several types of communication and some of them are:
 Intrapersonal: this refers to communication within oneself; for
example:
When thinking
When meditating
When planning conversation
When considering alternative e.t.c.
It is a form of self reflection or debate conducted with one’s
conscience.
INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
This is when you interact with another, learn about that person and
act in ways that help sustain or terminate your relationship.
GROUP COMMUNICATION
In group communication, you interact with a limited number of
people; you share information, develop ideas, make decisions, solve
problems, offer support or just have some fun.
PUBLIC COMMUNICATION
Through public communication, you inform and persuade members
of an audience to hold certain attitudes, values or beliefs, so that
they will think, believe or act in a particular way.
MASS COMMUNICATION
This type of communication involves simultaneous communication of
the same message to many receivers.
Each receiver receives and interprets the message individually.
Example: when communication is done through;
 Newspapers and telephones
 Magazines and websites
 Advertisements
 T.V. and radio
 Public libraries e.t.c.
ONLINE OR MACHINE ASSISTED
COMMUNICATION
During online or machine assisted communication, you navigate
cyber- space as you speak to one another, research, exchange ideas
and build relationships with others using computers and the internet.
METHODS OR MEDIA/CHANNELS OF
COMMUNICATION
1. ORAL COMMUNICATION MEDIA:
Oral communication occur in formal or less formal meetings,
discussion groups, lectures, talks, interviews and interpersonal
conversations.
They also occur over the phone.
Oral communication media is common is business situation where
you have employers and employees holding discussions in a meeting,
ask questions, make presentations, appraisal of performance,
handling of customers’ complaints and even giving instructions.
METHODS OR MEDIA/ CHANNELS OF
COMMUNICATION
• ORAL COMMUNICATION:
It should also be noted that, for oral communication to be effective, a
second communication skill is required and this skill is listening.
ADVANTAGES OF ORAL
COMMUNICATION
They are a direct media of communication.
They enable communicators to stablish and convey specific attitudes
to each other.
They allow for instant exchange of opinions, views and attitudes as
well as instant feedback.
They make it easier to convince or persuade.
They allow for contributions and participation from all those who are
present.
DISADVANTAGES OF ORAL
COMMUNICATION
Information could become distorted if is orally passed on from one
person to another before reaching the final destination; It is very
difficult to control.
There is no concrete proof the conversation actually took place
unless it is recorded.
It is very difficult for message relayed through oral media to hold
ground in the face of opposition.
The quality of decisions made during oral communication may be low
because there is lack of time to think things out.
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION MEDIA
Written communication occurs through use of:
Letters and memorandum
Telegrams
questioneers
Reports
Meeting minutes and meeting agendas
Newsletters, staff magazines and notice boards
Written communication is a source of documentation.
ADVANTAGES OF WRITTEN
COMMUNICATION
They offer concrete proof on an agreement hence they can be used
as evidence in a court of law.
They provide a written record of any transaction e.g. Dispatch and
receipts.
They can confirm, interpret and clarify what was presented in oral
communication.
DISADVANTAGES OF WRITTEN
COMMUNICATION
They are more difficult than oral because you have to get your message
correct in the first place.
They do not provide enough room for style, tone and register, otherwise
they really can be impersonal or distant.
They do not allow for instant feedback.
They are costly and takes time to produce.
Can cause problems of interpretation.
Instant feedback is not possible.
Does not allow for instant exchange of opinions, views or attitude
except over a period of time.
NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION
This refers to the transmission of messages without use of actual words
coming from the mouth.
Communicators make use of gestures, postures, facial expression, dress,
diagrams, graphs, photographs, film slides, video tapes, art works, drawings
e.t.c.
Successful non-verbal communication strongly relies on the senses of the
receiver of the message.
Use of sense of hearing by the receiver of the message is called, acoustic
semiology.
Use of sense of touch by the receiver of the message is called, tocsins.
Communication by sense of space is called, proxemics.
ADVANTAGES OF NON VERBAL
COMMUNICATION
It provides additional visual attraction
It helps to simplify written or spoken word.
It provides ideas in number form.
It illustrates techniques, presentation and procedures.
DISADVANTAGES OF NON VERBAL
COMMUNICATION
Since many aspects of non verbal communication are relevant to
particular cultures, they could be easily misinterpreted and this might
lead to communication breakdown.
Communicators need to be skilled in use of non verbal signs as well
as in comprehension and interpretation of the non verbal message.
It can be costly and expensive in terms of time to produce,
disseminate or distribute.
ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION
MEDIA
This refers to data or message transmission that is done on computer
terminals, telephones, e mail and fax facilities e.t.c.
ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRONIC
COMMUNICATION MEDIA
It is possible to send messages all over the world.
Users can get access to masses of information by means of the
internet.
DISADVANTAGES OF ELECTRONIC
COMMUNICATION MEDIA
It is expensive to acquire electronic machines.
It is expensive to acquire the knowledge and the skills to use the
electronic machines.
It is usually at threat of computer viruses which can distort or erase
all available information.
BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
This refers to factors that present themselves in a communication
process and cause the process to fail.
Barriers are described as obstacles to efficient and effective
communication.
Messages can either not be received, or may be received
incompletely or inaccurately.
PHYSICAL BARRIERS
Physical barriers are easy to spot.
Most transmission problems are physical, e.g. bad connections, poor
acoustics, illegible copy, more than one conflicting messages sent at
once.
When the communication process has too many links, some
distortions are likely to occur in the process of transmitting the
message from one person to another.
Environmental conditions are also an example of physical barriers.
When the environment interferes with a message, it could be loud
noise or a distracting scene.
PERCEPTUAL BARRIERS
EMOTIONAL BARRIERS
NOTE TAKING
Notes are brief summary or records that are written down for future
use or reference.
It can be in form of a memo, a short letter, a notice for public usage
e.t.c.
Note taking is different from note making in that, in note taking,
there is a source where one is getting the notes from. One jots some
important facts for future reference.
Attentive listening is therefore essential in note taking.
SPEAKING
Any presentation has three main components:
• Introduction
• Body
• Conclusion
The introduction is the first part of the presentation where five
functions are fulfilled and these are:
• to gain and maintain audience attention.
• to arouse audience interest and curiosity.
• to state the purpose of the presentation
BODY
The body is the largest part of the presentation in which the
presenter places arguments and ideas, evidence and examples, proofs
and illustrations, stories and testimonies.
Functions of the body includes:
It helps to increase what an audience knows about a topic
(informative presentation)
It changes an audience`s attitude about the topic (persuasive
presentation)
It presents a limited number of arguments, stories and or ideas
BODY cont.
It provides support of your arguments, stories and or ideas.
It indicates the source of your information, arguments and
supporting materials.
CONCLUSION
The conclusion wraps up or summarises the presentation.
The four functions of a conclusion include;
To forewarn the audience that you are about to finish.
Remind the audience of your central idea and the main points of your
presentation.
Specify what the audience should think or do in response to your
speech.
End the speech in a manner that makes the audience want to think
and do as you recommend.
NOTE MAKING AND SUMMARY
WRITING
We need notes because of several reasons:
Notes serve as records for future use.
Help to keep track where information came from.
Helps in understanding concepts.
Helps in writing, especially the planning and organizing of data or
information.
STRATEGIES OF NOTE MAKING
Keep notes brief.
Use your own words.
Write phrases not full sentences.
Make use of abbreviations which you can easily remember.
Leave large margins and space for adding information later.
Take note of the exact source of information.
Make use of full citations that are 100 percent accurate.
Hand writing must be clear and easy to read.
STRATEGIES OF NOTE MAKING cont.
Notes must be easy to understand.
Important ideas must stand out.
Flow of ideas should be logical.
COMMUNICATION IN BUSINESS
ORGANISATION
Business organization are established to achieve a specific purpose
such as, the production of some goods or services.
Effective communication is vital for the coordinated functioning of
any organization.
THE TWO MAIN CONTEXTS IN WHICH
ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION MAY BE
VIEWED
The two contexts are:
i. Internal communication
ii. External communication
INTERNAL ORGANISATIONAL
COMMUNICATION
Internal organizational communication involves all communication
network within the organisation; this might be between the various
levels of the hierarchy, departments, branches or individuals.
The main internal communication channels include;
a. Written- memos, reports, forms, notice boards, house magazines,
manuals e.tc.
b. Oral- interviews, consultations, formal and informal meetings, e.t.c.
c. Telecommunications- telephones, fax, computers, emails e.t.c.
EXTERNAL ORGANISATIONAL
COMMUNICATION
External organizational communication entails all communication
by the organisation with the general public, or other public or
business organisations.
The channels of external communication include: the mass media,
advertising, letters, company reports, open days, local community
participation, trade fairs and exhibitions, sponsorship, conferences.
LEVELS OF BUSINESS
COMMUNICATION
There are four levels of communication in an organisation:
1. Intrapersonal communication- this refers to communication within
yourself.
2. Interpersonal communication- this refers to communication to a
superior or subordinate.
3. One to Many- this involves making a speech.
4. Many to One- a committee making a presentation to a company
president, manager, e.t.c.
FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION IN
A BUSINESS ORGANISATION
The major functions of communication in a business organisation includes:
1. Information-passing information between people working in the same
organisation and between the organisation and others.
2. Control- communication (whether written, oral, non verbal) is also used
as part of management control for the planning of operations, evaluating
performance, directing and motivating staff.
3. Motivation- there should be a balance between control and motivation
and efficiency. To much control may reduce initiative and actually lead to
a lower productivity with less response to what the customer wants and
more emphasis on what the workers think the management wants.
ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE AND
LINES OF COMMUNICATION
Business organisation consists of people who work together to
achieve common goals.
Organisations are systems by which individuals cooperate so that
there can be specialization of functions and skills for greater
efficiency.
The specialization of functions is that which forms the basis of the
structure of an organisation.
THE FORMAL FLOW STRUCTURE
This structure is deliberately developed to regulate and direct the flow
of information and control other aspects of organizational hierarchy and
set up.
 In order to select, restrict, direct and control the flow of
communication within the formal organisation structure, the traditional
organisation employ the sequential model of communication.
The sequential model of communication emphasizes the up and down
hierarchal communication.
Most frequently, communication designated to superiors is referred to
as upward/vertical communication.
THE FORMAL FLOW STRUCTURE
cont.
Messages designated to subordinates is referred to as
downward/vertical communication.
Communication to those on our level is called lateral/horizontal
communication.
Diagonal communication occurs when there is communication
between lower and higher levels of hierarchy, but both in different
lines of authority.
COMMUNICATION MEDIA IN
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
Both formal and informal channels of communication may employ four
major media of communication and these are:
1. Face to face communication – this includes communicating through
formal meetings, interviews, informal contact.
2. Oral communication – this includes use of the telephones, the intercom
or public address system.
3. Written communication – this involves use of letters, memos, reports,
forms, notice boards, bulletins, newsletters, organizational manuals e.t.c.
4. Visual communication – this involves use of charts, films, slides, photos,
e.t.c.
PRINCIPLES OF BUSINESS
COMMUNICATION
• Completeness – your communication must contain all necessary
information. It is not proper for the recipient to request information
that should have been included.
• Courtesy – A few words of courtesy do not violate the principle of
conciseness rather, they add to the communication e.g. ‘please’… ‘we
appreciate’….’thank you very much’
• Correctness – information that is passed out should be proven to be
correct. Too many errors in spelling, price quotations , sentence
structure, e.t.c. show the inefficiency an organisation.
PRINCIPLES OF BUSINESS
COMMUNICATION cont.
• Clarity – avoid being ambiguous.
• Logical organisation –to achieve effective communication, organise your pieces of
information in a logical flow.
• Attractiveness – all business communication should look good in terms of appearance;
be it written or in face to face communication.
• Natural tone – the tone of business communication should be friendly, natural and
sincere. Avoid any rude or disrespectful words.
• Tact – avoid any controversial expressions that might antagonize or embarrass the
receiver. Even in times when you need to convey unpleasant ideas, your choice of words
to accomplish that objective should permit the receiver to save face and accept the idea.
PRINCIPLES OF BUSINESS
COMMUNICATION cont.
• Positive tone – a positive tone yields a positive reaction; it is
therefore advisable to make use of a positive tone in almost every
situation. At times, you may need to convey a negative idea or
problem; you should still be able to always follow immediately with
an offer of a positive solution.
• Receiver’s orientation – an effective communicator must be sensitive
to the reactions and anticipated responses of the receiver.
COMMUNICATION THROUGH
WRITING
THE 2 MAIN ADVANTAGES OF BUSINESS LETTER
A letter establishes a record of the interaction
A letter is personal
A letter that is concise, clear and friendly, courteous and complete,
gives the reader an image of a firm that is efficient and concerned.
A letter that is carelessly typed, incorrect in its details and sloppy in
its make up, may reflect an image of an organisation that is leaves the
reader not to want to engage in any business with the organisation.
Written communication, therefore, must be prepared with care.
THE MAIN PARTS OF A TYPICAL
BUSINESS LETTER
The Heading: this part is made up of a letterhead and the date.
 The letterhead is usually carefully designed to project an effective
non verbal image of the organisation.
The date should be spelled out: i.e. 6th March, 2022. and not
06/03/22 as the later could be misleading.
The Inside address: This part should carry the titles of the
individuals.
Do not abbreviate the name of the city e.g. MZ for Mzuzu; except in
instances where it is acceptable.
THE MAIN PARTS OF A TYPICAL
BUSINESS LETTER cont.
The Salutation: In formal correspondence, a salutation should be followed
by a colon.
Whenever possible, the person’s name should be used rather than the
impersonal. In most cases however, the salutation the impersonal is used
i.e. Dear Sir; Dear Madam.
The Body: This part should be centered and paragraphs should be
relatively short.
The complimentary close: This is typically ‘Sincerely’…….’Sincerely
yours’……….’Truly yours’………’.Yours truly
The signature: This is often made up of the organisation’s name, the typed
name used in the signature and the person’s title.
THE MAIN PARTS OF A BUSINESS
LETTER
It should be noted that;
The attention line, the subject line or letter reference number
usually appears in the area of the inside address and salutation
Enclosure and initial designation should appear below the signature.
The most popular forms for business letters are:
Full block form
Indented form
THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF LETTERS
Letter of praise: The purpose for letters of praise is to commend or congratulate
someone for a job well done; e.g. promotions, passing examination, or successful
completion of studies.
Letter of inquiry: The purpose for letters of inquiry is to investigate issues within an
organisation or among stakeholders.
Letter of complaints: The purpose for letters of complaints is to present your
grievances to the authorities when you feel that someone has wronged you.
Letter of recommendation: The purpose for letters of recommendation is to
persuade the readers that the person recommended, has the background, skills and
experiences necessary for the position.
Letter of application: The purpose for letters of application is to convince the reader
that you are an appropriate candidate for the job, study, service e.t.c.
STANDARD FORMAT FOR LETTERS
OF APPLICATION
A letter of application should be:
• Be correctly addressed, dated, e.t.c.
• A letter of application has 2 addresses; the senders’ address,
positioned on top and right side of the page and the recipient ‘s
address, positioned two spaces after the sender’s address on the left
margin of the page. However, recent business writing places both
addresses on the left margin of the page, with the sender’s addresses
• The date on which the writing is done, appears one space after the
sender address.
STANDARD FORMAT FOR LETTERS
OF APPLICATION cont.
• The subject line: The subject line comes immediately after the
salutation. The subject line should be well printed and highlighted.
Usually in capital letters, bold faced and underlined.
•
MEMORANDUM AND NOTICES
The memo acts as a record that can be filed and referred to later.
A memo can also be used to confirm assignments, fix responsibility
and document decisions or minutes of meetings.
Memos provide the busy executive with information quickly and
concisely.
MEMO FORMAT
For easy use, memos have taken on an almost universal form.
Memos are usually written on full page or half page paper
At the top, memo has a four-item- heading;
To :
From :
Date :
Subject :
MEMO FORMAT
The subject line tells the reader exactly what the memo is about,
eliminating the need for an introductory part. This line should be clear
and specific.
The information in the memo should be clear and concise
NOTICES
This is another medium used to communicate with a large numbers
of people within an organisation.
The channel of communication is the notice board on which the
notice is posted, the journal or newsletter in which it is displayed
e.t.c.
Notices serve the purpose of bringing the matter to people’s
attention.
USES OF NOTICES
 Notices are used for effective impact in the presentation of a
message (visually and intellectually)
Notices are used for longer term display of the message, as continual
reminder and record.
Notices are used for instruction, education, reminding and
persuasion.
FORMAT OF A NOTICE
Format of a notice is extremely flexible. Their design should be easily
seen, quickly grasped and attractive. Notices should:
i. Stimulate immediate interest.
ii. Be easy to read and comprehend.
iii. Encourage the appropriate reaction on the part of the reader.
iv. Sticks into his or her mind.
NOTE: People derive an image of an organisation as a result of
evaluating the quality of a business letter.
MEETINGS
Meetings should be called only when a decision needs to be made.
Invite only those individuals who can make a positive contribution to
the decision making or the problem solving activity.
Agendas should be distributed before each meeting so that those
attending can prepare for the meeting.
If there is insufficient time to distribute an agenda, list the agenda
items on a flip chart or a blackboard at the beginning of the meeting.
Begin and end meetings promptly at the scheduled times.
After each meeting, distribute a set of minutes to the participants
within 24 hours of the session.
PREPARING FOR THE MEETING OR
CONFERENCE
 Meetings should be planned carefully just like any other effective
communication activities.
The following should be addressed:
 Determine the need: Discuss the need for the meeting with key
individuals. Do not call the meeting if the need has not been defined
clearly.
 Define the topic or problem to be discussed: Carefully analyse the
problem. Once the specific problem and related items have been defined
by key personnel, note them as agenda items. This will keep participants
focused on key topics and make it easier to reach decisions.
PREPARING FOR THE MEETING OR
CONFERENCE
 Determine the type of meeting to be held: Determine what type of
meeting would most suit your needs. For instance:
Problem solving: This is the most common type of meeting. In such a
meeting, individuals are asked to help solve a problem by contributing
their expertise…..i.e. in engineering, accounting, marketing, production
or other areas.
Informational: This type of meeting brings individuals together so that
they may all be provided with the same information at the same time.
Individuals are often encouraged to ask question for clarifications.
PREPARING FOR THE MEETING OR
CONFERENCE
Brainstorming: This type of meeting provides an opportunity for the
organisation to hear new and different solutions to a problem.
Participants express as many ideas as possible about a topic or a
problem.
Training: At this type of meeting, specific ideas, skills, procedures or
concepts are explained, demonstrated and / or practised.
PREPARING FOR THE MEETING OR
CONFERENCE
 Select participants: Invite only those individuals who can make a
positive contribution to the meeting. Avoid inviting individuals
because of their positions, or to prevent ‘hurting someone’s feelings
or for the purposes of so-called protocol.
 Identify a meeting leader: An individual should be selected to act as a
stimulator or moderator in the meeting. This person may be a
member of the group or a group boss.
A group leader should be someone who