Electronics

Electric current and its properties

• Electric current is the flow of electric charge in a conducting medium, such as a wire. It is a
fundamental concept in electricity and plays a crucial role in various electrical devices and
systems. Here's an explanation of electric current and its properties:
• 1. Electric Charge:
• Definition: Electric current is the flow of electric charge. The basic unit of electric charge is
the elementary charge, denoted by �e.
• Charge Flow: In most conductors, like metals, electric current is carried by electrons. In
other cases, such as in electrolytes, positive and negative ions may be responsible for
current flow.
• 2. Current (I):
• Definition: Electric current (I) is the rate of flow of electric charge. It is
measured in Amperes (A), where 1 Ampere is equivalent to 1 Coulomb per
second.
• Mathematical Expression: I=Qlt​, where I is current, Q is charge, and t is time.
• 3. Types of Current:
• Direct Current (DC): Electrons flow in one direction.
• Alternating Current (AC): Electrons periodically change direction, typically in
a sinusoidal pattern.
• 4. Voltage (Potential Difference - V):
• Definition: Voltage is the electric potential difference that drives the flow of
electric charge. It is measured in Volts (V).
• Ohm's Law: V=I⋅R, where V is voltage, I is current, and R is resistance.

• 5. Resistance (R):
• Definition: Resistance opposes the flow of electric current. It is measured in
Ohms (ΩΩ).
• Ohm's Law: R=IV​.
• Connection of resistors
• Resistors can be connected in various ways within an electrical circuit to achieve
specific effects or to meet certain requirements. The two primary methods of
resistor connection are series and parallel configurations. Additionally, there is a
combination of these methods called a series-parallel connection.

• 1. Series Connection:
• Configuration: In a series connection, resistors are connected end-to-end, forming a single pathway for
the current to flow.
• Current: The same current flows through each resistor.
• Voltage: The total voltage across the resistors is the sum of the individual voltages.
• Resistance: The total resistance in a series circuit is the sum of the individual resistances.
• Formula: Rtotal​=R1​+R2​+R3​+…
• 2. Parallel Connection:
• Configuration: In a parallel connection, resistors are connected across common
points, forming multiple pathways for the current.
• Current: The voltage across each resistor is the same, and the total current is the
sum of the currents through individual resistors.
• Voltage: The voltage across each resistor is the same as the total voltage.
• Resistance: The reciprocal of the total resistance is equal to the sum of the
reciprocals of the individual resistances.
• Formula:
• 3. Series-Parallel Connection:
• Configuration: A combination of series and parallel connections, providing a
mix of total resistance and current paths.
• Strategy: Analyze and simplify the circuit by first combining resistors in series
and parallel before calculating the total resistance.
• Application: Commonly used in complex circuits to achieve specific resistance
values.
 Capacitors
• Capacitors are electronic components that store electrical energy in an electric
field. They consist of two conductive plates separated by an insulating
material known as a dielectric. The key property of capacitors is capacitance,
measured in farads (F), which indicates the ability of the capacitor to store
charge per unit voltage. Capacitors have various applications in electronic
circuits, such as smoothing power supplies, filtering signals, and timing
circuits. There are different methods of connecting capacitors in circuits to
achieve specific effects:
• 1. Series Connection:
• Configuration: In a series connection, capacitors are connected end-to-end,
sharing the same connection points.
• Capacitance: The reciprocal of the total capacitance is equal to the sum of the
reciprocals of the individual capacitances.
• Formula:
• Voltage: The voltage across each capacitor is the same as the total voltage.
• 2. Parallel Connection:
• Configuration: In a parallel connection, capacitors share common voltage points
but have separate current paths.
• Capacitance: The total capacitance is the sum of the individual capacitances.
• Formula: Ctotal​= C1​+C2​+C3​+…
• Voltage: The voltage across each capacitor is the same as the total voltage.
A diode is a two-terminal semiconductor device that allows current to flow in one
direction only. It serves as a fundamental building block in electronic circuits and
plays a crucial role in rectification, signal demodulation, and various other
applications. The basic principle of a diode lies in the asymmetry of its electrical
properties, allowing it to conduct current in one direction while blocking it in the
opposite direction.
Here are the key features and characteristics of a diode:
. Semiconductor Material:
•Diodes are typically made of semiconductor materials such as silicon or germanium.

2. P-N Junction:
•The most common type of diode is the semiconductor diode, which has a P-N junction. The P-region (positive) and
N-region (negative) are regions with different types of doping.
• 3. Forward Bias:
• When a positive voltage is applied to the P-side and a negative voltage to the
N-side, the diode is in forward bias.
• This reduces the barrier potential, allowing current to flow through the diode.
4. Reverse Bias:
• When a positive voltage is applied to the N-side and a negative voltage to the
P-side, the diode is in reverse bias.
• This increases the barrier potential, making it difficult for current to flow in
the reverse direction.