Kinetic Molecular Theory

Collisions of Gas Particles

Kinetic Theory
 Kinetic Molecular Theory
Postulates of the Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases

1. Gases consist of tiny particles (atoms or molecules)

2. These particles are so small, compared with the distances between

them, that the volume (size) of the individual particles can be assumed
to be negligible (zero).

3. The particles are in constant random motion, colliding with the walls of
the container. These collisions with the walls cause the pressure exerted
by the gas.

4. The particles are assumed not to attract or to repel each other.

5. The average kinetic energy of the gas particles is directly proportional

to the Kelvin temperature of the gas
 Kinetic Molecular Theory
Postulates Evidence
1. Gases are tiny molecules in mostly The compressibility of gases.
empty space.

2. There are no attractive forces Gases do not clump.

between molecules.

3. The molecules move in constant, Gases mix rapidly.

rapid, random, straight-line motion.

4. The molecules collide classically with Gases exert pressure that

container walls and one another. does not diminish over time.

5. The average kinetic energy of the Charles’ Law

molecules is proportional to the Kelvin
temperature of the sample.
Newton’s First Law of Motion (Law of Inertia)

Object at rest tends to

stay at rest, and object
in motion tends to stay
in motion at constant
velocity unless object
is acted upon by an
unbalanced, external
force.
inertia  mass
 Properties of Gases

Gas properties can be modeled using math.

Model depends on:

V = volume of the gas (liters, L)

T = temperature (Kelvin, K)
P = pressure (atmospheres, atm)
n = amount (moles, mol)
 Pressure - Temperature - Volume
Relationship

Boyle’s P a 1
___

Charles V a T

Gay-Lussac’s P a T
 Boyle’s Law (Robert Boyle)
• As the pressure on a gas increases, the volume
decreases.
• The pressure and volume are inversely related.

Boyle’s P a 1
___

V
=  =
 Boyle’s Law Illustrated

Zumdahl, Zumdahl, DeCoste, World of Chemistry 2002, page 404

 Sample Problem
1. A 100.0 L sample of gas was compressed
to 10.0 mL where its pressure is 350.0
torr. What was the original pressure of the
100.0 L sample?
2. A sample of gas occupies a volume of
155 mL at a pressure of 580 torr and a
temperature of 250C. Calculate the new
pressure if the volume is increased to 300
mL at constant temperature?
 Charles’ Law (Jacques-Alexandre-
César Charles)
• As the temperature on a gas increases, the
volume also increases.
• The temperature and volume are directly
related.

Charles’ T a V
=  =
Charles’s Law Illustrated
 Sample Problem
1. The volume of a gas is 300 mL at 740
torr and 250C. If the pressure remains
constant and the temperature is raised
to 1000C, what will be the value of the
new volume?
2. Calculate the decrease in temperature
when 2.5 L at 20.0 °C is compressed
to 0.5 L.
 Gay-Lussac’s Law (Amonton’s
law)
• By Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac
• As the temperature on a gas increases, the
pressure also increases.
• The temperature and pressure are directly
related.
Gay-Lussac’s P a T

=  =
 Sample Problems
1. Butane gas is stored in a tank at a
pressure of 10.0 atm at 22.0 0C. The tank
can hold a pressure of 50.0 atm before
bursting. During a fire the gas is heated
to 500.0 0C. What is the gas pressure,
and will the tank contain the gas without
bursting?
2. A sample of chlorine gas is raised to 1140
mmHg from a pressure of 0.50 atm. If the
original temperature was 227 0C, what is
the new temperature?
 Combined Gas Law
• is a gas law which combines Charles's law, Boyle's
law, and Gay-Lussac's law.
• examines the behavior of a constant amount of gas
when pressure, volume and/or temperature is
allowed to change.

P 1V 1 P 2V 2
=
T1 T2
P 1V 1T 2 = P 2V 2T 1
 Sample Problem
1. What is the new pressure of 850 mL of
argon at 819 0C and 5.0 atm when it is
cooled to 273 0C and reduced to a
volume of 300 mL?
2. The volume of a dry gas is 4.0 L at 15 0C
and 745 torr. What volume will the gas
occupy at 40 0C and 700 torr?
 Avogadro’s Law (Amadeo
Avogadro)
• States that the volume of a gas is
proportional to the number of moles of gas
present when temperature and pressure
are held constant.
• Avogadro's law can be expressed by the
formula:

V 1 /n 1 = V 2 /n 2
 Sample Problem
1. A 6.0 L sample at 25 °C and 2.00 atm of
pressure contains 0.5 moles of a gas. If
an additional 0.25 moles of gas at the
same pressure and temperature are
added, what is the final total volume of
the gas?
2. A balloon with a volume of 250 mL is filled
with 2.5 moles of helium gas. If the
number of moles of helium is increased to
6.0 moles, what is the new volume?
 Ideal Gas Law
PV = nRT
Brings together all gas properties.
P = pressure
V = volume (must be in liters)
n = moles
R = universal gas constant (0.0821L.atm/mol.K
or 8.314J/mol.K)
T = temperature (must be in Kelvin)
 Sample Problem
1. What volume will 8.0 grams of
O2 occupy at 45 0C and 2.0
atm?
2. Calculate the volume of 38.8 g
of CO2 at 725 torr and 25.0 C.
0

* n = mass / molecular weight

 Dalton's Law of Partial
Pressures (John Dalton)
• The total pressure of a mixture of gases is
equal to the sum of the partial pressures of
the various components.
• Partial Pressure - The fraction of the total
pressure of a mixture of gases that results
from one component of the mixture.

PT = P1 + P2 + P3 + …
 Sample Problem
1. An equilibrium mixture contains H2 at 470
torr pressure, N2 at 190 torr pressure, and
O2 at 286 torr pressure. What is the total
pressure of the gases in the system?
2. The pressure of a mixture of nitrogen,
carbon dioxide, and oxygen is 150 kPa.
What is the partial pressure of oxygen if
the partial pressures of the nitrogen and
carbon dioxide are 100 kPA and 24 kPa,
respectively?
 Graham’s Law of Effusion
• States that the rate of effusion or of
diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional
to the square root of its molecular weight
(density).
 Sample Problem
1. Quantitatively compare the rates diffusion
for equal moles of hydrogen gas and
oxygen gas at the same temperature and
pressure.
2. What would be the rate of effusion of
hydrogen compared to methane?
 Kinetic Theory and the Gas Laws

10
10 10 10

(a) (b) (c)

original temperature increased temperature increased temperature
original pressure increased pressure original pressure
original volume original volume increased volume

Dorin, Demmin, Gabel, Chemistry The Study of Matter , 3rd Edition, 1990, page 323 (newer book)
 Kinetic Theory and the Gas Laws

(a) (c)
original temperature increased temperature increased temperature
original pressure increased pressure original pressure
original volume original volume increased volume
Dorin, Demmin, Gabel, Chemistry The Study of Matter , 3rd Edition, 1990, page 323 (newer book)
 E S
U L
E C
O L
O M
B I
Biomolecules
Molecules that make up living things.

Biological molecules 31
 Biological Molecules
Water Proteins Lipids

Nucleic acids Carbohydrates

Organic Compounds
 Most Biomolecules are organic
 This means they are based on Carbon
and include hydrogen
 Includes carbohydrates, lipids, proteins
and nucleic acids
 Also includes vitamins

Biological molecules 33
Types of Biomolecules
Carbohydrates

Lipids

Proteins

Nucleic Acids

Biological molecules 34
 Carbohydrates
 Carbohydrate means “hydrated” carbon

 Composing elements C, H, O

 Hydrogen and Oxygen are in a ratio of 2:1

 Can be simple monomers like glucose

 Can be complex polymers like cellulose

Biological molecules 35
 Groups of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates

sugars

Monosaccharides Disaccharides Polysaccharides

(monomers) ( Dimers) (polymers)

Biological molecules 36
Monosaccharides
C6H12O6

 Fructose
 Galactose
 Glucose

Biological molecules 37
Importance:
 Energy source: used as a reactant in
respiration
 Monomer Unit: used to form:
 Dimers (disaccharides) and
 Polymers (polysaccharides)

Biological molecules 38
 Disaccharides
 Lactose: glucose + galactose
 Maltose: glucose + glucose
 Sucrose: glucose + fructose

sucrose
Biological molecules 39
Condensation to form Disaccharides

Biological molecules 40
Importance:
 Energy storage: sucrose is a store of
energy in sugarcane and sugar beets

 Energy transport: carbohydrate is

transported in plants as sucrose
Biological molecules 41
Polysaccharides

Biological molecules 42
Structural Carbohydrates
Chitin – arthropod exoskeleton and fungal
cell wall
 modified form of cellulose

Biological molecules 43
Further Discussion

What makes a carbohydrate a reducing

sugar?

What makes up a carbohydrate?

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
Further Discussion
What makes a carbohydrate a reducing
sugar?

REDUCIN
REDUCIN lactose G SUGAR
glucose G SUGAR

REDUCIN NON
sucrose
fructose
G SUGAR REDUCIN
G SUGAR

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
Further Discussion
What makes a carbohydrate a reducing
sugar?

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
Let’s check

REDUCING REDUCING
SUGAR SUGAR

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
Let’s check

REDUCING REDUCING
SUGAR SUGAR

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
Let’s check

mannobiose

REDUCING
NON REDUCING
SUGAR
SUGAR

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
Further Discussion

starch

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
 Further Discussion
REDUCING NON REDUCING SUGAR
SUGAR

glucose starch
lactos
e

sucrose

fructose

glycogen

mannobiose

disaccharides

polysaccharides

monosaccharides Simple sugars Complex

sugars
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
 Further Discussion
REDUCING NON REDUCING SUGAR
SUGAR

glucose starch
lactos
e

sucrose

fructose

glycogen

mannobiose

disaccharides

polysaccharides

monosaccharides Simple sugars Complex

sugars
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
 What have we learned?

Are all carbohydrates the same?

 There are different kinds of carbohydrates. Some examples of

carbohydrates are starch, fructose, glucose, lactose and
sucrose.

 These carbohydrates differ in structure.

 Some come as single units of sugar called monosaccharides.
 Some come as two units of sugar called disaccharides.
 Some come with more than two units of sugar which is called
polysaccharides.
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
 What have we learned?
 All monosaccharides are reducing sugars.
 All disaccharides are reducing sugars except sucrose.
 All polysaccharides are not reducing sugars.

 Reducing sugars are sugars whose ring structure consists of a

carbon that has oxygen (-O) and hydroxyl (-OH) group attached
to it.

 Monosaccharides and disaccharides are also known as simple

sugars.
 Polysaccharides are also known complex sugars.

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
 What have we learned?
 The kind of carbohydrate in the foods may be
determined through tests such the Iodine and
Benedict’s Tests. The Iodine test determines the
presence of starch while Benedict’s test determines
the presence of reducing sugars.

 All carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and

oxygen.

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
Post-Lab Discussion
Table 3. Expected Results on Carbohydrate Test
Food sample Benedict’s Test Iodine Test
Banana (+++) (+)
Cracker (-) (+)
Milk (+) (-)
Noodles (-) (+)
Orange (+++) (-)
Rice (-) (+)
Table Sugar (-) (-)
Control (-) (-)

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
ACTIVITY IN ACTION

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
ACTIVITY IN ACTION

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
ABSTRACTION

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
 Protein
 C,H,O,N and some have S
(a few might also have P due to
Addition of P in modification process
but P is not a component of amino acids)

 insulin:C254H377N65O76S6

Biological molecules 60
Made by Ribosomes
DNA
 Amino acids are
JOIN together by Transcription
 PEPTIDE BONDS mRNA
 Following a
Translation
sequence dictated
by the DNA Polypeptide?
/Protein

Biological molecules 61
About half can be made by our body
and about half need to be
consumed(Between 8-10 are
essential) 62
 Amino Acids

Phenylalanine
(phe)

Glutamine (gln)

Aspartic Acid
(asp)
Biological molecules 63
20 different
amino acids
encoded by
the DNA

Biological molecules 64
 Lipids
 Composing elements C, H, O

 Lipids are loosely defined as groups of organic molecules

that are insoluble in water. Their chemical formula vary
considerably.

 Include:
 fats
 oils
 Waxes
 Phospholipids
 steroids: sex hormones and cholesterol
 some vitamins
 glycolipids (lipids with carbohydrates attached)
Biological molecules 65
 Lipid structure
 Most lipids are composed of a glycerol
molecule with attached fatty acids.
GLYCEROL FATTY ACIDS
Fatty acid
Glycerol

Fatty acid
Triglyceride
Fatty acid

Phospholipid GLYCEROL
HYDROPHOBIC END

Fatty acid
Glycerol

Fatty acid

PO4
FATTY ACIDS
HYDROPHYLIC END Biological molecules
Lipid structure
 Some lipids have a four ringed structure
 Eg. Cholesterol and other lipids that are
derived from cholesterol

Biological molecules
Steroid Hormones
Progesterone: responsible for changes associated with the
menstrual cycle and with differentiation factor for mammary glands

Aldosterone: raises blood pressure and fluid volume, increases Na +

uptake

Testosterone: male sex hormone synthesized in the testes,

responsible for secondary male sex characteristics

Estradiol: an estrogen, principal female sex hormone, produced in

the ovary, responsible for secondary female sex characteristics

Cortisol: involved in stress adaptation, elevates blood pressure and

Na+ uptake, numerous effects on the immune system.
 Saturated fatty acid

Saturated fats:
Their fatty acids
 have no double bonds between carbon

atoms(have maximum number of

hydrogen atoms)
 Straight structure

 Unhealthy fats usually from animal sources

 Solid at room temperature(20°C)

Biological molecules 69
 Unsaturated fatty acid

Unsaturated
fats
Their Fatty acids have:
 Have some carbon atoms that are

double bonded(not fully hydrogenated)

 Kinked in shape

 Healthy

 From plant sources

 Liquid at room temperature (20°C)

Biological molecules 70
 Importance; Biological Role
 Used to store energy (approx 36 kj/gram)
Mitochondrion
Fat cell
(false color TEM)

Lipids are often stored in special adipose

tissue, within large fat cells

Lipids are concentrated sources of energy and can be

broken down (through fatty acid oxidation in the
mitochondria) to provide fuel for aerobic respiration
Biological molecules 71
 Importance; Biological Role
 An important structural component of
membranes

Phospholipids are the primary structural component

of all cellular membranes, such as the plasma
membrane (false color TEM above). Biological molecules 72
 Importance; Biological Role
 acts as a shock absorber
and good insulator

The white fat tissue (arrows) is

visible in this ox kidney

Fat absorbs shocks.

Organs that are prone to
bumps and shocks (e.g. Stored lipids provide
kidneys) are cushioned with insulation in extreme
a relatively thick layer of fat. environments. Increased body
fat levels in winter reduce heat
losses to the environment.
Biological molecules 73
 Importance; Biological Role
 Water proofing of some
surfaces

 Transmission of
chemical messages
Waxes and oils, when
via hormones secreted on to surfaces
provide waterproofing in
plants and animals.
Biological molecules 74
Nucleic Acids
 Composing elements: C, H , O, P, N
 Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
 Encodes information used to assemble
proteins.
 Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
 Reads DNA-encoded information to direct
protein synthesis.

Biological molecules 75
DNA nucleotides

Biological molecules 76
 Nucleotide structure

5’
Phosphate
group
Nitrogen base
(A,G,C,T)
Deoxyribose
(sugar)
3’

Biological molecules 77
purines pyrimidines

Biological molecules 78
Biological molecules 79
Introduction to Chemical Reactions
Making new substances
 Main Ideas
Chemical Reactions are represented by Chemical
Equations.

Chemical Equations are balanced to show the same

number of atoms of each element on each side.

The Law of Conservation of Mass says that atoms

won’t be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction.
That is why you have to balance chemical equations!
Chemical Reactions are
Everywhere
Cooking Respiration
Chemical Reactions are
Everywhere
Hair Dye Auto Fuel
 How do you know when a
chemical reaction takes place?
Color Change Precipitate Formation
 How do you know when a
chemical reaction takes place?
Gas Formation Odor
 How do you know when a
chemical reaction takes place?
Temperature Change Change in Acidity
Representing Chemical
Reactions
Chemists observe chemical reactions and have come
up with a way to represent or model what is
happening.

Making NaCl

Solid Sodium combines with Chlorine gas to make

solid Sodium Chloride:

2Na (s) + Cl2 (g)  2NaCl

Chemical Equations are different
from Numerical Equations
Numerical Equation: 3x + 2y = 47

Chemical Equation 2Na + Cl2  2NaCl

ReactantA + Reactant B  Product

The reactants are used up in forming the product

The arrow  shows the direction of the reaction

 Symbols used in
Chemical Equations
Symbol Purpose

+ Separates more than one reactant or

product

 Separates reactants from products.

Indicates direction of reaction
(s) Identifies a solid state

(aq) Identifies that something is dissolved

in water
(l) Identifies liquid state

(g) Identifies gaseous state

Law of Conservation of
Mass
In a chemical reaction, matter is neither created nor
destroyed.

Atoms won’t change their identity (e.g. a Carbon

atom can’t become an Iron atom)

This means that you have to have the same number

of each type of atom on each side of the chemical
equation.
 Balancing Equations
After you write a chemical equation you have to balance it to
make sure that the same number of atoms of each element
are on each side.
How would you balance this equation?

Li + H2O  H2 + LiOH
Steps to Balancing a Chemical Equation
 Try These!
C2H6 + O2  CO2 + H2 O

Fe2O3 + H2SO4  Fe2(SO4)3 + H2O

Hint : balance the polyatomic ion first!

CaCl2 + AgNO3  AgCl + Ca(NO3)2

Think – Pair - Share

 Practice Page…

1. __ AgI + __ Na2S → __ Ag2S + __ NaI

2. __ Ba3N2 + __ H2O → __ Ba(OH)2 + __ NH3
3. __ CaCl2 + __ Na3PO4 → __ Ca3(PO4)2 + __ NaCl
4. __ FeS + __ O2 → __ Fe2O3 + __ SO2
5. __ PCl5 + __ H2O → __ H3PO4 + __ HCl
6. __ As + __ NaOH → __ Na3AsO3 + __ H2
7. __ Hg(OH)2 + __ H3PO4 → __ Hg3(PO4)2 + __ H2O
8. __ HClO4 + __ P4O10 → __ H3PO4 + __ Cl2O7
9. __ CO + __ H2 → __ C8H18 + __ H2O
10. __ KClO3 + __ P4 → __ P4O10 + __ KCl
 Answers:

1. 2AgI + 1 Na2S → 1 Ag2S + 2 NaI

2. 1 Ba3N2 + 6 H2O → 3 Ba(OH)2 + 2 NH3
3. 3 CaCl2 + 2 Na3PO4 → 1 Ca3(PO4)2 + 6 NaCl
4. 4 FeS + 7 O2 → 2 Fe2O3 + 4 SO2
5. 1 PCl5 + 4 H2O → 1 H3PO4 + 5 HCl
6. 2 As + 6 NaOH → 2 Na3AsO3 + 3 H2
7. 3 Hg(OH)2 + 2 H3PO4 → 1 Hg3(PO4)2 + 6 H2O
8. 12 HClO4 + 1 P4O10 → 4 H3PO4 + 6 Cl2O7
9. 8 CO + 17 H2 → 1 C8H18 + 8 H2O
10. 10 KClO3 + 3 P4 → 3 P4O10 + 10 KCl
 Review
Matter is not destroyed or
created

Atoms are rearranged in

chemical reactions

Chemical equations represent

chemical reactions

You have to have the same

number of each type of atom
on the left and right hand side
of a chemical equation
 WARNING!
Don’t mess with the insides of polyatomic ions – put a square
around them, or label them as X – treat the WHOLE
polyatomic ion as though it were an element!

Don’t ever play around with subscripts (those little numbers

that tell you how many atoms are in a molecule) e.g.

C6H22O11
 Chemical Reactions

Five Types of Chemical Reactions:

1. Combustion

2. Synthesis
3. Decomposition

4. Single Displacement

5. Double Displacement
 1. Combustion Reactions

 More commonly known as burning

 Easily identified (release of heat)
 For combustion 3 things need to be present:

 Fuel  Oxygen  Heat

 1. Combustion Reactions

 Rocket Fuel:
2 H2(l) + O2(l) 2 H2O(g) + Heat

 Sulphur (in gasoline):

S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g) + Heat
 Common Oxides
Resulting from Combustion Reactions
Element in Common
Combustion Situation
Reactant Oxide
Coal in a coal-fired electricity generator carbon CO2 (g)

Burning of rocket fuel Hydrogen H2O (g)

Commercial production of sulphuric acid Sulphur SO2 (g)

Lightning strikes and volcanoes Nitrogren NO2 (g)

 2. Synthesis Reactions
(Combination Reaction)
 combination of two or more simple substances
combining to form a more complex substance.

A + B AB

+
 Synthesis of Magnesium Oxide

2 Mg(s) + O2(g)  2 MgO

 Other Examples

 Synthesis Reactions:
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)

S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)

 3. Decomposition Reactions

 Breaking down large, complex molecules or ionic

compounds into smaller, simpler entities.

AB A + B

+
 Decomposition of Hydrogen Peroxide

2 H2O2(l)  O2(g) + 2H2O(l)

 4. Single Displacement

 reaction of an element with a compound that

produces a new element and new compound.

A + BC AC + B
 Single Displacement of Zinc and Chlorine

2 HCl(aq) + Zn(s)  H2(g) + ZnCl2(aq)

Chemical Reactions in Solution

 SOLUTE – is a pure substance

(usually lesser in quantity) that is
dissolved in another pure substance
called the “SOLVENT”

 AQUEOUS SOLUTION – a
solution in which water is the
solvent (aqua – meaning water).
 Solubility
 Solutions are homogenous mixtures of solutes and
solvents.

 Solubility is the measure of how much of the

solute can possibly dissolve in a known amount of
solvent. If a substance has high solubility in water,
it has a subscript of (aq). However, if it isn’t very
soluble it will start to precipitate out and will have
a (s) subscript for solid.
 5. Double Displacement
 reaction of two compounds, where the positive and
negative ions in their respective compounds switch places to
form two new compounds. This can only happen with ionic
compounds

AB + CD AD + CB
 Double Displacement
A double displacement reaction only occurs if one of the
following three results are seen:

 a precipitate is formed
 a gas is produced
 a change of pH occurs (a neutralization reaction)

** If the products are both soluble then the reaction is NR

(no reaction)
 Double Displacement of Lead and Potassium

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq)  PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)

Precipitate: A solid
that is formed as a
result of the chemical
reaction of two
aqueous solutions.
 …end…
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