CARBOHYDRATES

WHAT ARE CARBOHYDRATES?

- most abundant macromolecules in nature
- composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
- main source and storage of energy in the body
- about 65% of the foods in our diet consist of carbohydrates
- during digestion and cellular metabolism
 carbohydrates to glucose
 glucose - immediate energy
 glycogen - reserve or stored energy

FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES
- Oxidation provides energy
- Structural framework of DNA and RNA
- Storage, in the form of glycogen provides short-term energy reserve
- When linked to lipids serves as structural components of cell membranes
- Supply carbon atoms for the synthesis of other biochemical substances
- When linked to proteins function a variety of cell-cell and cell-membrane recognition
processes

CARBOHYDRATES
- Polyhydroxy aldehyde, polyhydroxy ketone

CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
- MONOSACCHARIDES
- DISACCHARIDES
- POLYSACCHARIDES
CHIRALITY
- Handedness = monosaccharides
- MIRROR IMAGE
o Is the reflection of an object in a mirror
- 2 classes
- SUPERIMPOSABLE
o Images that coincide at all points when the images are laid upon each other
- NONSUPERIMPOSABLE
o Images where not all points coincide when the images are laid upon each other

▪ CHIRAL CENTER
– Is an atom in a molecule that has four different groups bound to it
▪ CHIRAL MOLECULE
– Molecule whose mirror images are not superimposable
▪ ACHIRAL MOLECULE
– Molecule whose mirror images are superimposable
▪ STEREOISOMERS
– Isomers that have the same molecular and structural formulas but differ in the
orientation of atoms in space
▪ DIASTEREOMERS
– Stereoisomers whose molecules are superimposable mirror images
▪ ENANTIOMERS
– Stereoisomers whose molecules are nonsuperimposable mirror images
CLASSIFICATION OF MONOSACCHARIDES BASED ON # OF CARBONS

MONOSACCHARIDES
▪ GLUCOSE
- “grape sugar”, “dextrose”, “blood sugar”
- aldohexose
- most important member of the sugar family (carbohydrates)
- one of the main sources of calorie
- can cross the BBB
- Increase in glucose = DM
- DM type 1 (insulin dependent)
- DM type 2 (adult-onset diabetes)
- Symptoms (4Ps)
- Polyuria
- Polydipsia
- Polyphagia

▪ FRUCTOSE
- Ketohexose
- “fruit sugar”, “levulose”
- commonly found in honey, fruits and vegetables
- sweetest of all sugars (1.5x sweeter than sucrose)

▪ GALACTOSE
- “brain sugar”
- sugar found in dairy products
- GALACTOSEMIA
DISACCHARIDES
• SUCROSE
- Table sugar
- Found naturally on plants
- GLUCOSE + FRUCTOSE
• LACTOSE
- Primary sugar in milk and milk products
- GLUCOSE + GALACTOSE
• MALTOSE
- Found in molasses
- Major degradation production of starch
- GLUCOSE + GLUCOSE

LACTOSE INTOLERANCE/ LACTASE PERSISTENCE

- A condition in which people lack the enzyme “LACTASE”
- Lactose + H20 XlactaseX glucose + galactose
- May result to abdominal pain, bloating and diarrhea after consumption of milk and any diary
products

GLYCOSIDIC BONDING

+ +
GLUCOSE FRUCTOSE GLUCOSE GALACTOSE

GLUCOSE
 +
GLUCOSE GLUCOSE

▪ POLYSACCHARIDES
– composed of more than 3 monosaccharides
– long chains of glucose
▪ NUTRIENT (DIGESTIBLE) POLYSACCHARIDES
▪ STARCH, GLYCOGEN
▪ STRUCTURAL (INDIGESTIBLE) POLYSACCHARIDES
▪ CELLULOSE, CHITIN

▪ STARCH
– storage form of carbohydrates in plants
– Antidote for Iodine poisoning
– composed of
▪ AMYLOSE
▪ water soluble
▪ LINEAR
▪ AMYLOPECTIN
▪ insoluble in water
▪ BRANCHED
POLYSACCHARIDES

▪ GLYCOGEN
– storage form of glucose in the body
– stored in the liver and muscles
– Glycogenesis, Glycogenolysis
▪ DEXTRAN
– Complex branched glucan derived from wine discovered by Luis Pasteur
– Plasma expander
▪ CELLULOSE
– chief constituent and main structural material in cells of fibrous plants
▪ DIETARY FIBERS
– cannot be broken down by intestinal enzymes
– slows absorption of simple sugars
– increase stool weigh which helps prevent constipation

ACIDIC POLYSACCHARIDES
▪ Polysaccharide with a disaccharide repeating unit in which one of the disaccharide component is
an amino sugar and one pr both disaccharide components has a negative charge due to a sulfate
or carboxyl group
▪ HYALURONIC ACID
– Highly viscous solution serves as lubricants in the fluid of joints
– Associated with the jelly-like consistency of vitreous humor of the eye
▪ HEPARIN
– Blood anticoagulant
▪ GLYCOLIPIDS
– Lipid molecules that has one or more
carbohydrate units covalently bonded to it
– Ex. Cerebrosides, gangliosides occur
extensively in brain tissues
▪ GLYCOPROTEINS
– Protein molecules that has one or more
carbohydrate units covalently bonded to it
– Ex. Immunoglobins are key components of
the body’s immune system
DIETARY CONSIDERATIONS
▪ SIMPLE CARBOHYDRATE
▪ dietary monosaccharide or disaccharide
▪ Usually sweet
– Natural Sugar
▪ Naturally present in foods (ex. Milk and fresh fruits)
– Refined sugar
▪ Sugars that have been separated from its plant source (ex. Sugar beets and
sugar canes)
▪ COMPLEX CARBOHYRATE
– Dietary polysaccharide
– Starch and cellulose
– Not generally sweet