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INTRODUCTION
BIO means life
CHEMISTRY means the study of structure, properties, composition, and changes (SPCC) of
matter
EUKARYOTIC CELL is a true cell
Cell membrane regulates the transport of materials entering and exiting the cell.
ORGANELLES
MITOCHONDRION
- powerhouse of the cell
3 Parts of Mitochondria:
Mitochondrial Matrix
- where KREB’s cycle occurs
Cristae
- site of ETC (electron transport chain)
Intermembrane space
- the space between the outer and inner membrane
LYSOSOMES
- “Garbage Collector”
- contains digestive enzymes
- Absence of lysosomes may lead to accumulation of waste in the cell making it toxic causing
diseases such as cancer
- Tay-Sachs Disease
- Aids in APOPTOSIS
- Programmed Cell Death
RIBOSOMES
- Site of Protein Synthesis
- 2 subunits
Small Ribosomal Unit
- Reads the mRNA
Large Ribosomal Unit
- Forms polypeptide chain of amino acids
- 2 forms
70s – prokaryotic cells
80s – eukaryotic cells
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
- Network of membranes
- 2 FORMS
SOFT ER
- Storage organelle
- Lipid and Steroid formation
ROUGH ER
- Aids in protein synthesis
GOLGI BODY
- also known as Golgi Apparatus, discovered by Camillo Golgi
- Series of stacked membranes
- Helps process and package lipids and proteins that are exported out of the cell
MICROTUBULES
- Microscopic hollow tubes
- gives the cell shape
- Function:
Cell Division
Cell Movement
Cell Transport
NUCLEUS
- Control center of the cell
- Contains DNA
- Surrounded by a double membrane
- Easiest organelle visible to microscope
- one per cell
TRISOMY 21
- DOWN SYNDROME
TRISOMY 13
- PATAU SYNDROME
TRISOMY 18
- EDWARD SYNDROME
MONOSOMY X
- TURNER’S SYNDROME
23 CHROMOSOMES
- SEX CHROMOSOMES
- XX – FEMALE, XY – MALE
CARBOHYDRATES
(Polyhydroxy aldehyde, polyhydroxy ketone)
Carbohydrates to glucose
Glucose – immediate energy
Glycogen – reserve or stored energy
3 UNITS OF SUGAR
MONOSACCHARIDES
- GLUCOSE
- GALACTOSE
- FRUCTOSE
DISACCHARIDES
- MALTOSE
- LACTOSE
- SUCROSE
POLYSACCHARIDES
- STARCH
- GLYCOGEN
- CELLULOSE
CHIRALITY
Handedness = monosaccharides
MIRROR IMAGE
- the reflection of an object in a mirror
2 classes
SUPERIMPOSABLE
- Images that coincide all points
NONSUPERIMPOSABLE
- Images where not all points coincide
CHIRAL CENTER
- an atom in a molecule that has four different groups bond to it
CHIRAL MOLECULE
- molecule whose mirror images are not superimposable
ACHIRAL MOLECULE
- molecule whose mirror images are superimposable
STEREOISOMERS
- Isomers that have the same molecular and structural formulas but differ in the orientation
of atoms in space
ENANTIOMERS
- Stereoisomers whose molecules are nonsuperimposable mirror images
DIASTEREOMERS
- Stereoisomers whose molecules are superimposable mirror images
MONOSACCHARIDES
GLUCOSE
- “grape sugar”, “dextrose”, “blood sugar”
- aldohexose
- most important member of the sugar family (carbohydrates)
- one of the main sources of calorie
- can across the Blood Brain Barrier (BBB)
- increase in glucose = Diabetes Mellitus (DM)
- DM type 1 (insulin dependent)
- DM type 2 (adult-onset diabetes)
Symptoms (4Ps)
POLYURIA
-excessive urination
POLYDIPSIA
- excessive thirst
POLYPHAGIA
- excessive hunger
POUND LOSS
FRUCTOSE
- ketohexose
- “fruit sugar”, “levulose”
- commonly found in honey, fruits and vegetables
- sweetest of all sugars (1.5x sweeter than sucrose)
GALACTOSE
- “brain sugar”
- sugar found in dairy products
- GALACTOSEMIA
DISACCHARIDES
SUCROSE
- table sugar
- found naturally on plants
- GLUCOSE + FRUCTOSE = SUCROSE
LACTOSE
- primary sugar in milk and milk products
- GLUCOSE + GALACTOSE = LACTOSE
MALTOSE
- found in molasses
- major degradation product of starch
- GLUCOSE + GLUCOSE = MALTOSE
POLYSACCHARIDES
- composed of more than 3 monosaccharides
- long chains of glucose
NUTRIENT (DIGESTIBLE) POLYSACCHARIDES
- STARCH, GLYCOGEN
STRUCTURAL (INDIGESTIBLE) POLYSACCHARIDES
- CELLULOSE, CHITIN
STARCH
- storage form of carbohydrates in plants
- Antidote for Iodine poisoning
- composed of:
AMYLASE/AMYLOSE
- linear, water soluble
AMYLOPECTIN
-branched, insoluble in water
GLYCOGEN
- storage form of glucose in the body
- stored in the liver and muscles
- GLYCOGENESIS, GLYCOGENOLYSIS
DEXTRAN
- Complex branched glucan derived from wine discovered by Luis Pasteur
- Plasma Expander
ACIDIC POLYSACCHARIDES
- polysaccharide with a disaccharide repeating unit
HYALURONIC ACID
- Highly viscous solution serves as the lubricant in the fluid of joints
- Associated with jelly like consistency of vitreous humor of the eye.
HEPARIN
- blood anticoagulant
CARBOHYDRATES
GLYCOLIPIDS
- lipids that has one or more carbohydrates
- Ex. Cerebrosides, Gangliosides
GLYCOPROTEINS
- proteins that has one or more carbohydrates
- Ex. Immunoglobulins are key components of the body’s immune system
DIETARY CONSIDERATIONS
SIMPLE CARBOHYDRATE
- dietary monosaccharide or disaccharide
- usually, sweet
Natural Sugar
- naturally present in foods (ex. Milk and fresh fruits)
Refined Sugar
- sugars that have been separated from its plant source (ex. Sugar beets and sugar canes)
COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATE
- dietary polysaccharide
- starch and cellulose
- not generally sweet
LIPIDS
- an organic compound found in living organisms that is insoluble in water but soluble in polar
nonpolar organic solvents
- has lipid bilayer, polar head (hydrophilic), and nonpolar tails (hydrophobic)
PROPERTIES OF LIPIDS
- class of compounds
LIPID STRUCTURE
a. Saturated
b. Unsaturated
FATTY ACIDS
- Characterized as:
Palmitic Acid
IUPAC NAME: hexadecenoic acid
Monosaturated Fatty Acids
- Ocleic Acid
- IUPAC NAME: cis-9-octadecanoic acid
LINOLEIC ACID
- OMEGA 6
LINOLENIC ACID
- IUPAC NAME: cis, cis-9,12,15-octaadecatrienoic acid
- OMEGA 3
ARACHIDONIC ACID
- 20 carbons, 4 double bonds, and omega 6
EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid)
- 20 carbons, 5 double bonds, and omega 3
DHA (docosahexaenoic acid)
- 22 carbons, 6 double bonds, and omega 3
SATURATED FATTY ACID
Lauric acid
- 12 carbons, no double bond
Myristic acid
- 14 carbons, no double bond
Palmitic Acid
- 16 carbons, no double bond
Stearic acid
- 18 carbons, no double bond
Arachidic acid
- 20 carbons, no double bond
MONOSATURATED FATTY ACIDS
Palmitoleic acid
- 16 carbons, 1 double bond, and omega 7
Oleic acid
- 18 carbons, 1 double bond, and omega 9
ESTERIFICATION
- Glycerol added by three fatty acids formed a triester of glycerol (triacylglycerol) and
three water molecules.
FATS OILS
Solid/semi-solid at room temperature Liquid at room temperature
Unsaturated Fatty Acid Mono and Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid
From animals From Plants
Colorless, odorless, tasteless Colorless, odorless, tasteless
ESSENTIAL FATTY ACID
HYDROLYSIS
Complete hydrolysis of a triacylglycerol produces glycerol and three fatty acid molecules.
SAPONIFICATION
• Soapmaking involved heating lard (fat) with lye (ashes of wood, impure form of KOH)
MICELLE - a spherical cluster of molecules in which the polar portions of the molecules are
on the surface and the nonpolar portions are located in the interior
HYDROGENATION
• A chemical reaction that involves hydrogen addition across carbon- carbon multiple
bonds that increases saturation by converting it to single bonds
TRANS FAT
Fried Foods
Desserts
Pastas
Salty Snacks
Breads
Breakfast Pastries
UNSATURATED FATS
SATURATED FATS
TRANS FATS
• A lipid that contains one or more FA's, a phosphate group, a platform molecule to which
the FA's and the phosphate group are attached and an alcohol that attached to the phosphate
group
GLYCEROPHOSPHOLIPIDS
• A lipid that contains 2 FA's and a phosphate group esterified to a glycerol molecule and
an alcohol esterified to the phosphate group
PHOSPHORIC ACID
• Parent source for the minus one charged phosphate group used in the formation of
glycerophospholipids
• CHOLINE (phosphatidylcholines)
• ETHANOLAMINE (phosphatidylethanolamines)
• SERINE (phosphatidylserines)
PHOSPHATIDYLCHOLINES
• Uses: help boost cognitive function (Alzheimer's disease), in food industry used as
emulsifiers to promote the mixing of otherwise immiscible materials (mayonnaise, ice cream,
custards)
• compounds found in heart and liver tissue and high in concentration in the brain
SPHINGOPHOSPHOLIPIDS
• A lipid that contains one FA and one phosphate group attached to a sphingosine
molecule and an alcohol attached to the phosphate group
SPHINGOPHOSPHOLIPIDS
• SPHINGOMYELIN
NIEMANN-PICK DISEASE
CEREBROSIDES
• Simplest sphingoglycolipid
Cholesterol is a steroid
Steroid- Lipid whose structure is based on fused-ring system that involves three 6-
membered rings and one 5 membered rings
Steroid Nucleus- Steroid fused-ring system
Cholesterol
Lipoprotein
Cell membrane:
A lipid-based structure that separates a cells aqueous-based interior from the aqueous
environment surrounding the cell.
Controls the movement of substance into and out of the cell.
Lipid Bilayer
Two-layer thick structure of phospholipids and glycolipids in which the nonpolar tails of
the lipids are on the middle and the polar heads are in the outside surface.
Exterior polar head
Interior polar head
Central nonpolar heads
Integral membrane Protein – membrane protein that penetrates the cell membrane
Peripheral membrane protein – Nonpenetrating membrane protein located pf the surface
of the cell membrane
Transport across cell membranes
Passive Transport - a substance move across the cell membrane by diffusion of higher
concentration to s lower concentration without the expenditure of energy (osmosis)
Facilitated transport – substance move across a cell membrane with the aid of membrane
protein from higher conc. To lower conc. Without the expenditure of energy.
Active Transport – substance moves across a cell membrane with the aid of membrane
proteins against a concentration gradient t with the expenditure of energy.
2 major classifications
Sex Hormones – reproduction & secondary sex characteristics
Adrenocorticoid Hormones – regulates numerous biochemical process
Sex Hormones
and adrenal cortex, puberty, menstrual cycle, stimulate the development of the mammary glands
during pregnancy.
• ANDROGENS - male sex hormone, synthesized in the testes and adrenal cortex, male secondary
sex characteristics, muscle growth.
• PROGESTINS - pregnancy hormones, synthesized in the ovaries and placenta, prepare the lining
of the uterus for implantation of the fertilized ovum, suppress ovulation.
ANABOLIC STEROIDS - include the illegal steroid drugs used by some athletes to build up muscle
strength and enhance endurance.
ADRENOCORTICOID HORMONES
• MINERALOCORTICOIDS - control the balance of Na and K ions in cells and body fluids
•ALDOSTERONE
• GLUCOCORTICOIDS-controls glucose metabolism and counteract inflammation
CORTISOL (hydrocortisone)
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
•Inflammatory response
• ASPIRIN
Thromboxane - a messenger lipid that is C20- Fatty acid derivative that contains a cyclic either ring
and oxygen- containing functional groups.
Leukotriene – a messenger lipid that is a C20-fatty-acid derivative that contains three conjugated
double bond and hydroxy groups.
• Water-insoluble, water-repellant
Saponifiable and Nonsaponifiable Lipids
Saponifiable Lipid – is a lipid that undergoes hydrolysis in basic solution to yield two or more
smaller product molecules.
AMINO ACIDS - building blocks for proteins, contains both an amino group and a carboxyl group.
Alpha-amino acid - an amino acid in which the amino group and the carboxy group are attached to
the alpha-carbon
NONPOLAR AMINO ACID-amino acid that contains 1 amino group and a nonpolar side chain,
hydrophobic
POLAR NEUTRAL AMINO ACID-amino acid that contains 1 amino group, 1 carboxyl group and a
side chain that is polar but neutral
POLAR ACIDIC AMINO ACID - amino acid that contains 1 amino group and 2 carboxy groups, the
2nd carboxyl grp being part of the side chain.
POLAR BASIC AMINO ACID - amino acid that contains 2 amino grp and 1 carboxyl grp, the 2nd
amino grp being part of the side chain
Essential Amino Acid
A standard amino acids needed for protein synthesis that must be obtained from dietary
sources
COMPLETE DIETARY PROTEIN - a protein that contains all the essential AA in the same relative
INCOMPLETE DIETARY PROTEIN - a protein that does not contain adequate amounts, relative to
LIMITING AMINO ACID - essential AA that is missing, or present but in inadequate amount
ISOELECTRIC POINTS - is the pH t which an amino exists primarily in its zwitterion form
CYSTEINE
• The only standard amino acid that has a side chain that contains sulfhydryl group (-SH)
• In the presence of mild oxidizing agent, it readily dimerizes or react with another cysteine to
form a cystine molecule
PEPTIDES
Dipeptide - 2 AA
Tripeptide - 3 AA
Oligopeptide - 10-20 AA
OXYTOCIN
VASOPRESSIN
ENKEPHALINS
Pentapeptide neurotransmitters produced by the brain itself that bind at receptor sites in the
brain to reduce pain
MET-ENKEPHALINS
Tyr-Gly-Gly-Phe-Met
•LEU-ENKEPHALINS - Tyr-Gly-Gly-Phe-Leu
SMALL PEPTIDE ANTIOXIDANT
• GLUTHATIONE
Glu-Cys-Gly
Regulator of oxidation-reduction reactions
Antioxidant, protecting cellular contents from oxidizing agents
Produced by the liver
SIMPLE PROTEIN
present
CONJUGATED PROTEIN
-A protein that has one or more non-amino acid entities present in its structure in addition to one
or more peptide chain
• Glycoproteins (carbohydrates)
Prosthetic Group
• THE PRIMARY STRUCTURE OF A SPECIFIC PROTEIN IS ALWAYS THE SAME REGARDLESS OF WHERE
IT IS FOUND WITHIN AN ORGANISM
ALPHA HELIX - in which a single protein chain adopts a shape that resembles a coiled
spring (helix) with the coil configuration maintained by the hydrogen bonds
BETA PLEATED SHEET - in which two fully extended protein chain segments in the same or
different molecules are held together by hydrogen bonds (U-turn structure)
• INTERACTIONS
• Electrostatic interactions
• Hydrogen bonds
• Hydrophobic interactions
• Ex. Of protein with QPS is
• HEMOGLOBIN
PROTEIN HYDROLYSIS
• COMPLETE HYDROLYSIS - all peptides’ bonds are broken freeing up all AA and is only the product
• PARTIAL HYDROLYSIS-some but not all peptide bonds are broken therefore having a product of
both free AA and small peptides
PROTEIN DENATURATION
ALPHA-KERATIN
COLLAGEN
GLOBULAR PROTEIN
HEMOGLOBIN
MYOGLOBIN
Collagen
Immunoglobin
• Protective response
• Antibody-biochemical molecule that counteracts a specific antigen
• Cyclosporine (antirejection drug)
• Antigen-foreign substance such as virus or bacteria that invades the human body
LIPOPROTEINS
Plasma Lipoprotein
4 MAJOR CLASSES
• CHYLOMICRONS - transport TAGs from the intestine to the liver and adipose
tissues
• VERY-LOW-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS (VLDLS) - transport TAGS synthesized in the
liver to adipose tissues
• LOW-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS (LDLs)
• HIGH-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS (HDLs)