Chapter 2

Elastic Properties Solids

The 4 States of Matter
Solids
Liquid
Gas
Plasma
Solids
 Has definite volume
 Has definite shape
 Molecules are held in
specific locations
 by electrical forces
 Vibrate about
equilibrium positions
 Can be modeled as
springs connecting
molecules
More About Solids
 External forces can be applied to
the solid and compress the
material
 In the model, the springs would be
compressed
 When the force is removed, the
solid returns to its original shape
and size
 This property is called elasticity
 Crystalline Solid
 Atoms order in a lattice

Faceting is a sign
of microscopic Diamond
 Crystalline Solid
 Atoms have an
ordered structure
 An example is a
crystal of salt
 Gray spheres
represent Na+ ions
 Green spheres
represent Cl- ions
Amorphous Solid
 Atoms are
arranged almost
randomly
 Examples include
glass and plastic
 Liquid
 Has a definite volume
 No definite shape
 Exists at a higher
temperature than solids
 The molecules “wander”
through the liquid in a
random fashion
 The intermolecular forces are
not strong enough to keep the
molecules in a fixed position
 Cannot resist shearing forces
 Gas
 Has no definite volume
 Has no definite shape
 Molecules are in constant
random motion

The molecules exert only weak forces on each

other
 Average distance between molecules is large

compared to the size of the molecules

 Plasma
 Matter heated to a very
high temperature
 Many of the electrons are
freed from the nucleus
 Result is a collection of
free, electrically charged
ions
 Plasmas exist inside stars
Properties of Solids
Density
Elasticity
Deformation
Fracture Strength
Density
 The density of a substance of
uniform composition is defined as
its mass per unit volume:
m
 
V
 Units are kg/m3 (SI) or g/cm3
(cgs)
 1 g/cm3 = 1000 kg/m3
Deformation of Solids
 All objects are deformable
 It is possible to change the shape or
size (or both) of an object through the
application of external forces
 When the forces are removed, the
object tends to its original shape
 An object undergoing this type of
deformation exhibits elastic behavior
 Elastic Properties
 Stress is the force per unit area
causing the deformation
 Strain is a measure of the amount of
deformation, =the response to stress
 The elastic modulus is the constant of
proportionality between stress and
strain
 For sufficiently small stresses, the stress is
directly proportional to the strain
 The constant of proportionality depends on
the material being deformed and the nature
of the deformation=elastic modulus
Elastic Modulus
 The elastic modulus can be
thought of as the stiffness of the
material
 A material with a large elastic
modulus is very stiff and difficult to
deform
 Analogous to the spring constant

stress=Elastic modulus×strain
 Young’s Modulus:
Elasticity in Length
 Tensile stress is the
ratio of the external
force to the cross-
sectional area
 Tensile is because the
bar is under tension
 The elastic modulus
is called Young’s
modulus
Young’s Modulus, cont.
 SI units of stress are Pascals,
Pa
 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
 The tensile strain is the ratio of the
change in length to the original
length
 Strain is dimensionless F L
Y
A Lo
 Young’s Modulus, final
 Young’s modulus
applies to a stress of
either tension or
compression
 It is possible to exceed
the elastic limit of the
material
 No longer directly
proportional
 Ordinarily does not
return to its original
length
Breaking
 If stress continues, it surpasses its
ultimate strength
 The ultimate strength is the greatest stress
the object can withstand without breaking
 The breaking point
 For a brittle material, the breaking point is
just beyond its ultimate strength
 For a ductile material, after passing the
ultimate strength the material thins and
stretches at a lower stress level before
breaking
Poisson's ratio: v
 Poisson's ratio: v
l > l0  l= l-l0

d< d0  d= d0-d,

Poisson's ratio v is defined as the negative ratio
of lateral strain to longitudinal strain.
d / d 0 laterial strain
v  
l / l 0 longitudinal strain
Shear Modulus:
Elasticity of Shape
 Forces may be
parallel to one of the
object’s faces
 The stress is called a
shear stress
 The shear strain is
the ratio of the
horizontal
displacement and the
height of the object
 The shear modulus is
S
Shear Modulus, Equations
F

shear stress 
A
x
shear strain 
h
F x
S
A h
 S is the shear modulus
 A material having a
large shear modulus is
difficult to bend
Shear Modulus, final
 There is no volume change in this
type of deformation
 Remember the force is parallel to
the cross-sectional area
 In tensile stress, the force is
perpendicular to the cross-sectional
area
Bulk Modulus:
Volume Elasticity
 Bulk modulus characterizes the
response of an object to uniform
squeezing
 Suppose the forces are perpendicular
to, and act on, all the surfaces
 Example: when an object is immersed in
a fluid
 The object undergoes a change in
volume without a change in shape
 Bulk Modulus, cont.
 Volume stress, ΔP, is
the ratio of the force
to the surface area
 This is also called the
Pressure when dealing
with fluids
 The volume strain is
equal to the ratio of
the change in
volume to the
original volume
Bulk Modulus, final
V
P   B
V
 A material with a large bulk modulus is
difficult to compress
 The negative sign is included since an
increase in pressure will produce a
decrease in volume
 B is always positive
 The compressibility is the reciprocal of
the bulk modulus
Notes on Moduli
 Solids have Young’s, Bulk, and
Shear moduli
 Liquids have only bulk moduli,
they will not undergo a shearing or
tensile stress
 Typical Values for the Elastic Modulus
Young’s Modulus Poisson's
Substance Shear Modulus (Pa) Bulk Modulus (Pa)
(Pa) ratio

Aluminum 7.0×1010 2.50×1010 7.0×1010 0.16

Bone 1.80×1010 8.0×1010 -

Brass 9.10×1010 3.5×1010 6.1×1010 0.26
Copper 11 ×1010 4.2×1010 140×1010 0.32
Steel 20 ×1010 8.4×1010 16×1010 0.19
Tungsten 35 ×1010 14×1010 20×1010 0.20
Glass 5.5-7.8 ×1010 2.6-3.2×1010 5-5.5×1010 0.27
Quartz 5.6 ×1010 2.6×1010 2.7×1010

Rib Cartilage 1.2×107 - -

Rubber 0.1×107 - -
Tendon 2 ×107 - -
Water - - 0.21×1010
Mercury - - 2.8×1010
Energy stored in a stretched wire
(Elastic Potential energy):
This work done is stored in the wire as a potential energy U.
as the external force F is such that F = -Fr thus F = k∆l, and
1 1
U W  k ( l )  F l
2

2 2
The elastic potential energy per unit volume u
1 1 Y
u  Stress×strain  (stress )  (strain )
2 2

2 2Y 2
Thermal stress

l  l 0T  l 0 (T T 0 )
tensile stress F / A
Y  
tensile strain l / l 0
YA YA
F l  l 0T Y A T
l0 l0
Thermal stress is thin given by:
F
Thermal stress   Y T
A
Relation between Y, S and B
Y Y
S  B 
2(1  v ) 3(1  2v )
9SB 3B  2S
Y  v 
3B  S 2(S  3B )
Limits of v:
If bulk modulus B and the shear modulus S are both positive quantities
This possible if ( 2v < 1 or v < 0.5)
If v is to be negative quantity
This is possible only if 1 + v is positive or v is not less than -1.

The limiting values of v are -1 and 0.5.

7. Torsion of a cylinder
 7. Torsion of a cylinder

x
l  x  or  
l
shear stress shear stress F / A
S   
shear strain shear angle 

The twisting couple Ct

 S a4
Ct 
2l
 Sa 4
twisting couple per unit angular twist is:
2l
:Prestressed Concrete

 If the stress on a solid object

exceeds a certain value, the object
fractures. The maximum stress that
can be applied before fracture occurs
depends on the nature of the
material and on the type of applied
stress.
 For example concrete has a tensile
strength of about 2 x 10ˆ6 N/m², a
compressive strength of 20 x 10ˆ6
N/m², and a shear strength of 2 x
10ˆ6 N/m.²

 It is common practice to use large

safety factors to prevent failure in
concrete structures.
 Concrete is normally very brittle
when it is cast in thin sections. Thus
concrete slabs tend to slab and crack
at unsupported areas as shown in
figure A.
 The slab can be strengthened by the use
of steal rods to reinforce the concrete as
illustrated in figure B. Because concrete is
much stronger under compression
“squeezing” than under tension
“stretching” or shear, vertical columns of
concrete can support very heavy loads,
whereas horizontal beams of concrete
tend to sag and crack.
 However, a significant increase in
shear strength is achieved if the
reinforced concrete is prestressed as
shown in figure C. As the concrete is
being poured the steal rods are held
under tension by external forces.
Quick Quiz 2.1 A block of iron is sliding
across a horizontal floor. The friction force
between the block and the floor causes the
block to deform. To describe the relationship
between stress and strain for the block, you
would use (a) Young’s modulus (b) shear
modulus (c) bulk modulus (d) none of these.
 TABLE 2.2 Ultimate Strength of Materials

Tensile Compressive Strength

Material
Strength(N/m2) (N/m2)
Iron 1.7 ×108 5.5×108

Steel 5.0 ×108 5.0×108

Aluminum 2.0×108 2.0×108

Bone 1.2×108 1.5×108

Brick 1.0×106 0.35×108

Concrete 2×106 0.2×108

Example 2.1 Built to Last

 A vertical steel beam in a building supports a load of 6×104 N. (a)

If the length of the beam is 4.0 m and its cross-sectional area is
8×10-3 m2, find the distance the beam is compressed along its
length. (b) What maximum load in Newton could the steel beam
support before failing?
F L
Y
A L0
FL 0 (6 104 N )(4.0m )
L  
Y A (2 1011Pa )(8 10-3 m 2 )
1.5 10-4 m

F F
 =(5.0  108
Pa )
A 8 10 m -3 2

F  4.0 106 N
Example 2.2
 An aluminum wire 3 mm in diameter and 4 m long is used to support

a mass of 50 kg. What is the elongation of the wire? Young's modulus

for aluminum is 7 × 1010 Pa.
 What if The elastic limit of aluminum is 1.3 × 10 8 Pa. What is the

maximum mass that the wire can support without exceeding its elastic
limit?

FL 0 (790N )(4.0m )
L  
Y A (7 1010 Pa )(7.07 10-6 m 2 )
 3.96 10-3m  3.96mm

Fmax = A × 1.3 × 108 = (7.07 × 10-6 m2)( 1.3 × 108 Pa)=919 N

Fmax = mg = 919 N
Then m = (919N)/ (9.8 m/s2) = 94 kg
A wire is stretched 1 mm by a force of 1 kN. (a) How far would a wire of the same material
and length but of four times that diameter be stretched? (b) How much work is done in
stretching each wire?
FL1 4FL1
Y  
A1L  d 12 L
4FL1 4FL 2
L1  similarly L 2 
 d 12Y  d 22Y
L1 4FL1  d 22Y d 22
  2
L 2  d 1Y 4FL 2 d 1
2

d 12 L1 1
L 2  L1   mm
(4d 1 ) 2 16 16
1000  0
W 1  F L1  (1103 )  0.5J
2
1000  0 1
W 2  F L 2  ( 103 )  0.0313J
2 16
While at 00C a square steel bar of 20 cm side is fixed at both ends so that it
cannot expand. If the temperature is raised to 20 0C what force would be
exerted on the support at the ends? Given that (Y = 2×1011 N/m2 and the
coefficient of linear expansion of steel α = 1.2×10 -5 0C-1)
l  l 0T

l l 0T
longitudinal strain=   T
l0 l0
 1.2 105  20  2.4 104
F
stress = Y strain=
A
 20 1011  2.4 104  4.8 107 N / m 2
F  A  stress  20 102  4.8 107  19.2 105 N
  2.1 The stress on a wire that supports a load
depends on which one or more of the following?
 (a) the wire's length (b) the wire's diameter
 (c) acceleration of gravity (d) the mass of the load

2.2 A load causes a wire to stretch by the amount s. If the

same load is applied to another wire of the same material but
twice as long and with twice the diameter, the second wire will
stretch by the amount

(a) s/4 (b) s/2 (c) s (d) 2s