Leadership and Management

NURS411
LEADERSHIP
&
MANAGEMENT
UNIT I: EXPLANATION OF
TERMS
• Management:
:the act of getting people together to
accomplish desired goals.
:a process that is used to accomplish
organizational goals; that is, a process that
is used to achieve what an organization
wants to achieve.
2
• According to Harold Koontz, “Management
is an art of getting things done through
and with the people in formally organized
groups. It is an art of creating an
environment in which people can perform
and individuals and can co-operate
towards attainment of group goals”.
Elements of management
• Prevoyance (Forecast & Plan): examining
the future and drawing up a plan of action.
The elements of strategy.
• To organize: build up the structure, both
material and human, of the undertaking.
• To command: maintain the activity among
the personnel.
4
Elements of management 2
• To coordinate: binding together, unifying
and harmonizing all activity and effort.
• To control: seeing that everything occurs
in conformity with established rule and
expressed command
5
LEADERSHIP
• The ability of a superior to influence the
behavior of subordinates and persuade
them to follow a particular course of action
(Bernard 1938).
• A major way in which people change the
minds of others and move organizations
forward to accomplish identified goals
LEADERSHIP: NATURE
• Effective leadership is a key factor in the life
and success of an organization
• Leadership transforms potential into reality.
• Leadership is the ultimate act which brings to
success all of the potent potential that is in an
organization and its people.
• Leaders propose new paradigms when old
ones lose their effectiveness.
LEADERSHIP: POWER
• Legitimate power – comes solely from the
position the superior holds in an organization
• Reward power – comes by means of
promotion, salary increases and interesting
assignments
• Expert power – comes from the leader
possessing superior knowledge of the matter
under discussion
LEADERSHIP: POWER 2
• Referent power – comes from the fact
that subordinates identify with the leader
and respect him/her
• Coercive power – comes from forced
actions an potential for punishment
LEADERSHIP THEORIES
Great Man Theory
• Leaders are born, not made.
• This approach emphasized that a person is born
with or without the necessary traits of
leaderships.
Early explanations of leadership studied the
“traits” of great leaders
 “Great man” theories (Gandhi, Lincoln, Napoleon)
 Belief that people were born with these traits and
only the great people possessed them
Great Man Theory 2
• Great Man approach actually emphasis
“charismatic” leadership. charisma being the
Greek word for gift.
• No matter what group such a natural leader
finds himself in, he will always be recognized for
what he is.
• According to the great man theory of leadership,
leadership calls for certain qualities like
commanding personality, charm,
courage ,intelligence, persuasiveness and
aggressiveness.
Trait Theories
Leadership
LeadershipTraits:
Traits:
• • Ambition and energy
Ambition and energy
• • The desire to lead
The desire to lead
• • Honesty and integrity
Honesty and integrity
• • Self-confidence
Self-confidence
• • Intelligence
Intelligence
• • Job-relevant knowledge
Job-relevant knowledge
© 2003 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 11–13

Trait Theories
• The trait theory is based on the great man
theory, but it is more systematic in its
analysis of leaders. Like the great man
theory, this theory assumes that the
leader’s personal traits are the key to
leadership success.
Trait Theory
Personality Traits
Abilities Motivators
Personal Traits
Supervising Ability Need for Occupational

l Self-Assurance l
l
Intelligence Achievement
l Decisiveness
l
Initiative Self-actualization
l Masculinity/Famininity l
l
Maturity Power Over Others
l l
Working Class Affinity High Financial Reward
l l
Job Security
l
Traits of Leaders
• Intelligence
• Physical Features
• Inner Motivation
• Maturity
• Vision & Foresight
• Acceptance of Responsibility
• Open-Minded and adaptability
• Self-confidence
Traits of Leaders 2
• Human Relations Attitude
• Fairness and Objectivity
Trait Theories: Limitations
• No universal traits that predict leadership in
all situations.
• Traits predict behavior better in “weak” than
“strong” situations.
• Unclear evidence of the cause and effect of
relationship of leadership and traits.
• Better predictor of the appearance of
leadership than distinguishing effective and
ineffective leaders.
Behavioural Theory
• In contrast with trait theory, behavioural
theory attempts to describe leadership in
terms of what leaders do, while trait theory
seeks to explain leadership on the basis of
what leaders are.
• Leadership according to this approach is
the result of effective role behaviour.
Behavioural Theory 2
• Assumptions
 Leaders can be made, rather than are born
 Successful leadership is based in definable,
learnable behavior
• Description
 Behavioral theories do not seek inborn traits
 they look at what leaders actually do
Behavioural Theory 3
 Success can be defined in terms of
describable actions
• Implication:
 Leadership capability can be learned
• Two general types of behavior
exhibited by leaders:
 Concern for People
 Concern for Production
Leadership style defined
• Deferent combination of task and
relationship behaviors used to influence
others to accomplish goals
• Task behavior: the extent to which
leaders organize and define roles, explain
activities, determine when, where and how
tasks are to be accomplished , and
endeavor to get work accomplished
23
Leadership styles defined 2
• Relationship behaviors: the extent to
which leaders maintain personal
relationships by opening communication
and providing psychoemotional support
and facilitating behaviors.
24
Leadership styles: Authoritarian
• Primarily directive behaviors
• Manager retains as much power and decision
making authority as possible
• Does not consult staff, nor allowed to give any
input
• Staff expected to obey orders without receiving
any explanations
• Structured set of rewards and punishments
• Communication flow downwards
25
Leadership styles 2:
Authoritarian
Sometimes the most effective style to use:
• New, untrained staff do not know which tasks
to perform or which procedures to follow
• Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions
• Staff do not respond to any other leadership
style
• Limited time in which to make a decision
26
Authoritarian
• A manager’s power challenged by staff
• Work needs to be coordinated with
another department or organization
27
Authoritarian
Should not be used when:
• Staff become tense, fearful, or resentful
• Staff expect their opinions heard
• Staff depend on their manager to make all
their decisions
• Low staff morale, high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
28
Leadership styles 5: Authoritarian
(Advantages)
Reduced stress due to increased
control:
• manager ultimately has significant legal
and personal responsibility for a project
• comfort them and reduce their stress
levels to know that they have control over
their fate
29
(Advantages)
A more productive group ‘while the
leader is watching’:
• team improves their working speed and
makes them less likely to slack
• ideal for poorly motivated employees who
have little concern or interest in the quality
or speed of work performed
30
(Advantages)
Improved logistics of operations:
• having one leader with heavy involvement in
many areas makes it more likely that problems
are spotted in advance and deadlines met
31
Authoritarian (Advantages)
Faster decision making:
• when only one person makes decisions
with minimal consultation, decisions are
made quicker
• allows the management team to respond
to changes in the business environment
more quickly.
(Disadvantages)
Short-termistic approach to management:
• robs subordinates of the opportunity to gain
experience and start on their own leadership
development
• robs subordinates of the opportunity to learn
from their mistakes
• de-skilled workforce will lead to poorer
decisions and productivity in the long run
33
(Disadvantages)
Manager perceived as having poor
leadership skills:
• Managers with poor leadership skills will
often revert to this style by default
Increased workload for the manager:
• an autocratic leader works at their full
capacity
• can experience long term stress and health
problems
34
Leadership styles 11: authoritarian
(disadvantages)
• damaged working relationships with
colleagues
• hyper-focus on work comes at the expense of
good leadership development
People dislike being ordered around:
• they dislike being shown very little trust and
faith
• the autocratic leadership style can result in a
demotivated workforce
35
(Disadvantages)
Teams become dependent upon their
leader:
• workers lose initiative and the confidence
to make decisions on their own
• workers become useless at running
operations if they loose contact with their
leader
36
Authoritative
• also known as participative style
• relationship and person oriented
• encourages staff to be a part of the decision
making
• keeps staff informed about everything that
affects their work and shares decision making
and problem solving responsibilities
• free flow of ideas(up and down
communication)
37
Authoritative
• policies are a matter of group discussion and
decision
• focus is on human relations and team work
• creates an atmosphere of mutual respect
• communication and consensus given high
priority
• leader has the final say, but gathers
information from staff before making a
decision
38
Authoritative
• produce high quality and high quantity
work for long periods of time
• staff like the trust they receive and
respond with cooperation, team spirit, and
high morale
• leader effectively delegate duties to
subordinates and give them full control
and responsibility for those duties
39
Authoritative
• leader welcomes feedback on the results
of initiatives and the work environment
• leader encourages others to become
leaders and be involved in leadership
development
40
Authoritative
Most effective when:
• staff need to be kept informed about matters
affecting them.
• staff need to share in decision-making and
problem-solving duties.
• providing opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job
satisfaction is desired
41
Authoritative
• a large or complex problem that requires
lots of input to solve
• changes must be made or problems
solved that affect staff
• team building and participation need to be
encouraged
42
Authoritative
• not enough time to get everyone’s input
• easier and more cost-effective for the manager
to make the decision
• the team can’t afford mistakes
• manager feels threatened by this type of
leadership
• staff safety is a critical concern
43
Leadership styles 20: Authoritative
(Advantages)
Positive work environment:
• culture of delegated responsibility
• culture where self is challenged
• employees are more enthused to work and
enjoy what they do
44
(Advantages)
Successful initiatives:
• better decision making and more effective
operations
• fewer grave mistake and catastrophes
Creative thinking:
• the free flow of ideas and positive work
environment is the perfect catalyst for
creative thinking.
45
(Advantages)
Reduction of friction and office
politics:
• allow subordinates to use their ideas
• allow subordinates to gain credit for their
ideas
Reduced employee turnover:
• when employees feel empowered through
leadership development,
46
(Disadvantages)
Lengthy and ‘boring’ decision making:
• slow decision making process
• can cause opportunities to be missed, or
hazards avoided too late
Danger of pseudo participation:
• managers pretend to follow a democratic
leadership style simply to score points
• manager never implement suggestions from
subordinates
47
Leadership styles 24: Laissez-
Faire
• also known as the “hands-off or
permissive¨ style
• the manager provides little or no direction
• staff given as much freedom as possible
• all authority or power given to the staff
• staff determine goals, make decisions, and
resolve problems on their own
• based on noninterference
48
Faire
• A clear decision may never be formulated
• Leader is either permissive to foster
freedom or inept at guiding a group
49
Faire
An effective style to use when:
• staff highly skilled, experienced, and
educated
• staff have pride in their work and the drive
to do it successfully on their own
• outside experts, such as staff specialists
or consultants are used
• staff trustworthy and experienced
50
Faire
• staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a
manager
• the manager cannot provide regular
feedback
• managers unable to thank staff for their
good work
• manager doesn’t understand his or her
responsibilities and hoping the staff cover
51
Leadership styles 28: Laissez-Faire
Advantages:
• promotes autonomy
• promotes creativity
Disadvantages:
• passivity
• aimless behavior
• chaos
• inefficiency and low productivity
52
Situational Leadership
• Assumptions
 The best action of the leader depends on
a range of situational factors.
 When a decision is needed, an effective
leader does not just fall into a single
preferred style.
• Tannenbaum and Schmidt (1958)
identified three forces that led to the
leader's action:
 the forces in the situation
 the forces in the follower
 the forces in the leader
• This recognizes that the leader's style is
highly variable, and even such distant
events as a family argument can influence
decisions made in the work place.
Leadership styles 32: Situational
vs. Contingency Leadership
• Both assume that there is no simple one
right way:
• Situational theory tends to focus more on the
behaviors that the leader should adopt, given
situational factors (often about follower
behavior).
• Contingency theory takes a broader view that
includes contingent factors about leader
capability and other variables within the
situation.
Transactional Leadership
• Assumptions
 People are motivated by reward and punishment.
 Social systems work best with a clear chain of
command.
 When people have agreed to do a job, a part of
the deal is that they cede all authority to their
manager.
 The prime purpose of a subordinate is to do what
their manager tells them to do.
• Transactional leader works through
creating clear structures
 Work requirements are clear
 Reward structure is clear
 Punishments are not always mentioned,
but they are also well‐understood and
formal systems of discipline are usually in
place
 Negotiate the contract whereby the
subordinate is given a salary and other
benefits, and the company (and by
implication the subordinate's manager)
gets authority over the subordinate
 The transactional leader often uses
management by exception, working on the
principle that if something is operating as
expected then it does not need attention.
 In the Leadership vs. Management Spectrum,
transactional leadership is very much towards
the management end of the scale.
 Relies strongly on principle of “rational man” and
reaction to rewards and punishment
Transformational Leadership
• Assumptions:
 People will follow a person who inspires
them.
 A person with vision and passion can
achieve great things.
 The way to get things done is by injecting
enthusiasm and energy.
• Functions:
 Creates and sustains a context that
maximizes human and organizational
capabilities
 Facilitate multiple levels of transformation
 Alignthem with core values and a unified
purpose
To respond to a dynamic environment
• Make change happen in:
 Self,
 Others,
 Groups, and
 Organizations
 Charisma a special leadership style
commonly associated with transformational
leadership; extremely powerful, extremely
hard to teach
• Develop the vision
 Starts with the development of a vision, a
view of the future that will excite and convert
potential followers.
• Sell the vision
 Sell the vision immediately and continually.
 Create trust
 Rely on personal integrity
• Characteristics of the Transformational
Leader:
 Is a model of integrity and fairness.
 Sets clear goals.
 Has high expectations.
 Encourages others.
 Provides support and recognition.
 Stirs the emotions of people.
 Gets people to look beyond their self-
interest.
 Inspires people to reach for the
improbable.
Vision Centric Leadership Model that promote
the development of intrinsic value.
Bass in operationalizing the work of burns

posited the following characteristics:
Transformational
Leadership Idealized Influence.
Theory (Burns
and Bass) Inspirational Motivation.
Intellectual stimulation.
Individualized consideration.
Bureaucratic Leadership
• Manages “by the book¨
• Everything done according to procedure or
policy
• If not covered by the book, referred to the next
level above
Most Effective When:
 Staff performing routine tasks over and over
 Staff need to understand certain standards or
procedures.
Bureaucratic Leadership
 Safety or security training
 conducted
 Staff performing tasks that require handling cash
 Ineffective When:
 Work habits form that are hard to break,
especially if they are no longer useful
 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in their
co-workers
 Staff do only what is expected of them and
FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT
• Planning is both the organizational process
which includes formulation of one or more
detailed plans to achieve optimum balance of
needs or demands with the available resources
• Planning is a mental predisposition to do things
in orderly way, to think before acting and to act
in the light of facts rather than guesses”.
Planning is deciding best alternative among
others to perform different managerial functions
in order to achieve predetermined goals.
70
FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT 2
• Planning:
-identify the tasks to be accomplished
-develop comprehensive plan
-identify the resources needed to
accomplish tasks
-set clear goals and objectives
-develop strategies to accomplish goals
and objectives
71
FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT 3
-identify factors that may obstruct
accomplishing goals
-develop strategies to negotiate barriers
-consult with staff
-for the community, include members in
the planning process
-forecasting staffing needs
-forecasting client-staff ratio
72
FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT 4
-develop programs
-develop procedures
-assess strengths & weaknesses of unit
-develop duty roster
73
FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT 5
 Organizing is the way the organization
allocates resources, assigns tasks, and goes
about accomplishing its goals. In the process
of organizing, managers arrange a framework
that links all workers, tasks, and resources
together so the organizational goals can be
achieved.
 It is a function in which the synchronization
and combination of human, physical and
financial resources takes place.
74
FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT 6
• Organizing encompasses activities
designed to bring together an array of
various resources including personnel,
money and equipment in a manner that is
most effective in achieving goals
75
FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT 7
-requisition resources needed
-assemble all resources needed
-allocate resources according to need
-assign duties to individuals and teams
-develop and implement one clear principle of
command
-develop teams
-assign team leaders
-develop clear terms of reference for the functioning
of each team
76
FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT 8
-clearly define roles and job description of
team members and leaders
-develop an orientation package
-orient new staff
-allocate time for in house education and
training
-develop and implement policies and
procedures
develop a hierarchy of command
77
FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT 9
• Staffing involves finding the right people,
with the right skills, abilities, and fit, who
may be hired or already working for the
company (organization) or may be working
for competing companies.
• Human resource planning to fill positions
in an organization with suitable qualified
personnel
78
FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT 10
 Nurse staffing has three main components:
Planning
Scheduling
Allocating
 Planning refers to the number and categories of
nursing personnel needed over a long-term period
 Scheduling refers to assigning nursing staff for
specific time periods by shift
 Allocating refers to making adjusted assignments or
reallocations on a daily or shift by shift basis
79
FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT 11
 determine the number and categories of nursing
personnel needed
 request nursing personnel needed
 ensure that nursing personnel has the correct
qualification, training and competence
 develop orientation package for orienting new
staff to the ward
 orientation of new staff to the ward using
established guidelines, procedures and
orientation package
80
FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT 12
 assign staff to patient care situations based on
established job description, performance standards,
qualifications, training and competence
 ascertain that each employee is adequately
socialized to organizational values and unit norms.
 use creative and flexible scheduling based on client
care needs to increase productivity and retention
 develop a program of staff education that will assist
employees meeting the goals of the organization
81
FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT 13
-allocate staff in a manner that ensures
adequate staff-client ratio
-develop policies to govern the scheduling and
allocating of staff
-promote self scheduling among staff
-delegate scheduling and allocating duties to
junior members of staff
-schedule and allocate senior and more
proficient staff with those who are junior and less
proficient
82
FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT 14
-entertain special requests once it is
possible
-promote team oriented nursing
-assign team leaders
83
FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT 15
Delegation :
• the practice of turning over work-related
duties and/or authority to employees or
subordinates.
• Transferring to a competent individual the
authority to perform selected nursing
duties in selected nursing situations
84
FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT 16
-determine legal scope of delegation as
stated in the nurses and midwives
registration act
-utilize the five R’s of delegation
-assess the educational qualification, skills
and competency level of delegatee before
delegating
85
FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT 17
-provide clear and concise description of
duties when delegating
-provide adequate supervision of delegatee
-be prepared to intervene and do so if
necessary
-conduct prompt evaluation of duties
delegated
-solicit and provide prompt feed-back
-provide adequate resources to delegatee
86
FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT 18
-create a safe and comfortable environment
-delegate duties in accordance with agency
policy and procedures
-delegate duties that are within the scope of
nursing practice
-give full authority to the delegatee
-display trust and confidence in delegatee
-train and develop subordinates for
leadership
87
FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT 19
 Directing is the process of supervising, or leading
workers to accomplish the goals of the organization.
 Directing is also the management function of
establishing direction and influencing others to
follow that direction
 Directing is said to be a process in which the
managers instruct, guide and oversee the
performance of the workers to achieve
predetermined goals.
88
FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT 20
It involves:
 making assignments
 assisting workers to carry out assignments
 interpreting organizational policies
 informing workers of how well they are
performing
 providing constant and supportive supervision
 providing guidance
89
FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT 21
-give clear, concise and consistent orders
-follow up staff to determine if orders were carry out
-provide education and training when there is
deficiency
-assign staff to specific work related duties
-give assignments that are within the staff members
job description
-assist staff in carrying out assignment when needed
-establish, promote and encourage team work
90
FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT 22
-use leadership style that is applicable to each
situation
-develop and utilize good interpersonal skills
-motivate staff by meeting individual and
organizational needs
-interpret and explain organizational policies
-develop a procedure manual and make it available
to all staff
-demonstrate what is to be done if it becomes
necessary (especially with new staff)
91
FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT 23
-Identify education and training needs and
develop programs to address these needs
-develop a system of performance appraisal to
identify individual competence
-assign staff base on competence
-develop trust with and in staff
-delegate responsibility and authority for decision
making
-help staff to develop self and time management
skills
92
FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT 24
Controlling involves the evaluation activities that
managers must perform. It is the process of
determining if the company's goals and objectives
are being met and correcting situations in which
the goals and objectives are not being met.
Modern concepts view controlling as a
foreseeing action. In management means:
 setting standards
 measuring actual performance
 taking corrective action.
93
FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT 25
 Controlling consists of verifying whether
everything occurs in conformities with the plans
adopted, instructions issued and principles
established.
 Controlling ensures that there is effective and
efficient utilization of organizational resources so as
to achieve the planned goals.
 Controlling measures the deviation of actual
performance from the standard performance,
discovers the causes of such deviations and helps
in taking corrective actions
94
FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT 26
• Controlling is the management function
of monitoring and adjusting the plan,
processes and resources to effectively and
efficiently achieve goals
95
FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT 27
-establishments of standards
-establish measuring performance criteria
-comparing the actual results with the
standards
-correcting deviations from standards
-disciplinary measures against repeat
offenders
96
FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT 28
-training where standards are not being
met
-reward those who adhere to standards
-conduct performance appraisals
-provide regular feedback
97
FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT 29
• Coordinating: Process that involves a
decision by management as to how best to
put together the resources of the firm in
order to carry out established plans.
• Coordinating also requires directing. In
directing, managers oversee day-to-day
activities and keep the organization
functioning smoothly.
98
FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT 30
 Co-ordination is the unification, integration,
synchronization of the efforts of group
members so as to provide unity of action in the
pursuit of common goals
 Co-ordination is orderly arrangement of group
efforts to provide unity of action in the pursuit
of common goals
 Co-ordination is the integration of several
parts into an orderly hole to achieve the
purpose of understanding”.
99
FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT 31
-establish effective lines communications
with other members of the health care
team
-develop policies and procedures to
govern the collaboration between
members of the health care team
-develop effective supervision
100
FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT 32
-take leadership role to provide motivation
and persuasion
-abide by the four principles of coordination
-develop effective personal relationships with
other members of the healthcare team
-work towards full cooperation among all
members of the healthcare team
-develop clear lines of authority and
responsibility
101
FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT 33
• Evaluation is the process of determining
whether goals were achieved
• Evaluation is a management function in
which performance is measured and
corrective action is taken to ensure
organizational goals are achieved
102
FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT 34
-develop policies and procedures to be
used as standards
-provide and solicit feedback
-examine patient charts
-interview patients, relatives and other
members of the healthcare team
-examine staff member’s work
103
FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT 35
-develop and submit reports
-schedule ward conferences
-be part of the handing over process
104
NUR411
PERFORMANCE
APPRAISAL IN NURSING
105
DEFINITION
• Performance Appraisal is a formal process
by which an individual’s performance is
reviewed and evaluated against established
standards, most commonly a job description.
• Performance Appraisal is the systematic
evaluation of the performance of employees
and to understand the abilities of a person for
further growth and development.
106
DEFINITION 2
• Performance appraisals are periodic
evaluations of an employee's job
performance against a set of expectations
and goals. The results of this process are
used to make informed decisions for both the
individual employee and the organization in
areas such as compensation, promotion,
employee development, staffing and
succession planning, among others.
DEFINITION 3
• an important process within a broader
performance management system that
links:
-Organizational objectives
-Day-to-day performance
-Professional development
-Rewards and incentives
108
GOALS/OBJECTIVES OF
PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL SYSTEMS
• To maintain or improve performance
• To enhance the development of
employees
• To maintain records in order to determine
compensation packages, wage structure,
salaries raises, etc.
• To identify the strengths and weaknesses
of employees to place right personnel on
right job.
109
• To maintain and assess the potential in a
person for growth and development.
• To provide a feedback to employees
regarding their performance and related
status.
• It serves as a basis for influencing working
habits of the employees.
• To review and retain the promotional and
other training programmes.
CHARACTERISTICS OF AN EFFECTIVE
PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL SYSTEM
• The appraisal system has administrative
support
• Evaluation is based on job description or
other well defined criteria
• Clear criteria exist for the evaluation used
• Employees know who will be evaluating them
• Evaluation procedures are consistently
applied
111
CHARACTERISTICS OF AN EFFECTIVE
PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL SYSTEM 2
 Evaluations are conducted in a timely fashion
 Evaluators are well trained in the use of the
evaluation system
 The appraisal interview is a two-way
communication
 The individual know the related rewards or
disciplinary action
 The final disposition of the evaluation is
known to the employee
112
THE PURPOSE OF PERFORMANCE
APPRAISAL SYSTEMS
• Professional development
 identifying strengths and weaknesses in
performance
 implementing strategies for improvement
 Determining organizational training and
development needs
 Determining individual training and
development needs
113
APPRAISAL SYSTEMS 2
• Making and validating administrative
decisions
 determining compensation changes
 determine who gets a promotion
 determine who gets what job (placement)
 facilitating layoffs (termination)
 Identifying systemic factors that are barriers
to, or facilitators of, effective performance
114
APPRAISAL SYSTEMS 3
• to strengthen communication, understanding,
and therefore, the relationship between
supervisor and employee.
• to create an opportunity for change, growth
and continuous improvement
• to determine current knowledge and skill
levels and identify areas of greatest
competency and those in need of further
education.
115
APPRAISAL SYSTEMS 4
• to clarify job responsibilities, role definition,
and standards of expectation
• to use a consensus approach in setting
simple, measurable, relevant and realistic
goals for the department position for the
upcoming year
• to discuss the management's goals for the
institution and the ways the employee can
assist in attaining those goals.
116
APPRAISAL SYSTEMS 5
• providing feedback to employees
• motivating superior performance
• counseling poor performers
• encouraging coaching and mentoring
• supporting manpower planning or succession
planning
• confirming that good hiring decisions are being
made
117
APPRAISAL SYSTEMS 6
• providing legal defensibility for personnel
decisions
• improving overall organizational
performance
118
THE FUNDAMENTALS OF
PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL
• Relevance and applicability to everyday
work practice
• Acceptability to appraisers and workers.
A systematic approach to performance
appraisal can help ensure that these
two important criteria are met.
119
Factors influencing the effectiveness of
performance appraisal
• Appraisal must be based on standards
• Employee should have input in the
development of the standard
• Employee must know the standard in
advance
• Employee must know the sources of data
gathered for the appraisal
120
Factors influencing the effectiveness of
performance appraisal 2
• Appraiser should be one who has
observed employee’s work
• Appraiser should be someone employee
trust and respect
121
CRITERIA FOR EVALUATION
Standards of performance:
 Job description:
1. Action for which the employee is
responsible
2. Clearly written
3. Up to date
122
CRITERIA FOR EVALUATION 2
 Policies and Procedures:
1. Should be thought during the orientation
process
2. Relate to patient care activities
3. Relate to timeliness, absenteeism, and
participation
123
• Communication:
-verbal: spoken and written
-nonverbal
• Interpersonal relationships:
-peers and colleagues
-supervisors/management
124
• Job Performance:
-responsibilities
-competence
-policies and procedures
• Deportment
• Attendance and punctuality
125
• Organizing ability:
-management skills
• Leadership:
-influence on others
-initiative
126
INSTRUMENT FOR
EVALUATION
Should:
• Include Standards of care or practice
• Relate to Job description
127
Phases of performance
appraisal
• Performance planning
• Performance execution
• Performance assessment
• Performance review
128
CONDUCTING A PERFORMANCE
APPRAISAL
 This five-step approach to conducting a
systematic performance appraisal is
recommended:
1. Identify key performance criteria
2. Develop appraisal measures
3. Collect performance information from
different sources
4. Conduct an appraisal interview
5. Evaluate the appraisal process.
129
BENEFITS OF PERFORMANCE
APPRAISAL TO THE INDIVIDUAL
• Gaining a better understanding of their
role
• Understanding more clearly how and
where they fit in within the wider picture
• A better understanding of how
performance is assessed and monitored
• Getting an insight into how their
performance is perceived
130
APPRAISAL TO THE INDIVIDUAL 2
 Improving understanding of their strengths and
weaknesses and developmental needs
 Identifying ways in which they can improve
performance
 Providing an opportunity to discuss and clarify
developmental and training needs
 Understanding and agreeing their objectives for the
next year.
 An opportunity to discuss career direction and
prospects.
131
APPRAISAL TO MANAGERS
 Opportunities to hear and exchange views
and opinions away from the normal
pressure of work
 An opportunity to identify any potential
difficulties or weaknesses
 An improved understanding of the
resources available
 An opportunity to plan for and set
objectives for the next period
132
APPRAISAL TO MANAGERS 2
• An opportunity to think about and clarify
their own role
• An opportunity to plan for achieving
improved performance
• An opportunity to plan for further
delegation and coaching
• An opportunity to motivate members of the
team.
133
APPRAISAL TO THE ORGANIZATION
• A structured means of identifying and
assessing potential
• Up-to-date information regarding the
expectations and aspirations of employees
• Information on which to base decisions
about promotions and motivation
• An opportunity to review succession
planning
134
APPRAISAL TO THE ORGANIZATION 2
• Information about training needs which
can act as a basis for developing training
plans
• Updating of employee records
(achievements, new competencies etc)
• Career counseling
• Communication of information
135
APPRAISAL TO THE ORGANIZATION 3
• Enhance the quality of organizational
decision
• Enhance the quality of the individual
decision
• Provide tools for organizational diagnosis
and development
• Affect employees views and attachment to
their organizations
136
NURS411
Conflict
Management
137
Definitions
• Conflict: a clash or struggle that occurs
when an individual’s equilibrium between
feelings, thoughts, desires and behavior is
threatened
• Conflict: a struggle between
interdependent, dependent or independent
forces
138
Causes of conflict
• Specialization: a group that assumes
responsibility for a particular set of task or
area of service set itself from other groups.
Intergroup conflict often results
• Multitask Roles: the nursing role require
that one be a manager, a skilled caregiver,
human relations expert, a negotiator, an
advocate. Each role with its different task
require different orientations that may
cause conflict. 139
Causes of conflict 2
• Role interdependence- being part of the
multidisciplinary health care team means
that individual domains of practice have to
be discussed with others who may
compete for certain areas
• Task Blurring- results from role ambiguity
and failure to designate responsibility and
accountability for a task to one individual
or one group
140
Causes of conflict 3
• Differentiation- a group of people may
occupy the same role but the attitudinal,
emotional and cognitive behaviors of these
people toward their role differs. This
engenders conflict, especially in problem-
solving and decision-making activities
• Scarcity of Resources-competition for
money, patients, and positions is an
absolute source of interperson and
intergroup conflict 141
Causes of conflict
• Change- as change becomes more
apparent or threatening, the probability
and depth of conflict increases
proportionally
• Unequal Rewards- when people are
differentially rewarded, conflict is often a
result unless they were involved in
developing the reward system
142
Causes of conflict
• Communication Problems- ambiguities,
perceptual distortions, language failures,
cultural misunderstanding, and incorrectly
used communication channels all may
cause conflict
143
Principle strategies for managing
conflict
Avoiding or withdrawing from the
conflict
• denying the conflict exist
• seen most in people who are
uncomfortable with conflict situations
• appropriate in certain situations
• persons usually don’t see any positive
attributes in conflict
144
conflict 2
Accommodating or smoothing
• attempt to deal with issue without
addressing it
• involves giving in to the wishes of others
• appropriate if you are wrong, issue is
unimportant, or if future gain is more
• appropriate if conflict disrupt works
• those choosing this approach must plan
another way to solve problem in the future
145
conflict 3
Forcing the issue or competing
• involves working for self or group interest with
little concern for others
• persons believe that no compromise is possible
• this approach can prevent good problem solving
• competitors win by outtalking their colleagues,
by discounting the good ideas of others or by
personally attacking others
146
conflict 4
Compromising or negotiating:
• involves give and take
• aim is to reach a compromise acceptable to
all
• works because it minimizes loses and
provides gains
• appropriate when goals seem incompatible,
the conflict has time constraints, and when a
settlement is needed
147
conflict 5
Problem solving or collaboration:
• encourages the individuals involved in the
conflict to work toward common goals
• considered a win-win situation
• usually the best especially when
consensus is required
148
conflict 6
• requires commitment to be supportive and
considerate of one another, listen &
understand
• it demands awareness and sensitivity,
open and honest discussion and a non
competitive stance
149
Preventing/minimizing conflicts
• regularly review job descriptions
• intentionally build relationships with all
subordinates
• get regular, written status reports
• conduct basic training about interpersonal
communications, conflict management,
delegation
150
2
• develop procedures for routine tasks and
include the employees' input
• regularly hold management meetings
• consider an anonymous suggestion box in
which employees can provide suggestions
• assist staff in developing good
interpersonal relationships with each other
151
3
• create an atmosphere which promotes
team work
• encourage and facilitate cooperation
• promote a respectful work environment by
modeling professional behaviors
• mentor, support and integrate new staff
members into the practice setting
152
4
• implement policies that do not tolerate
abuse of any kind
• ensure that policies against workplace
conflict are also directed at combating any
form of discrimination
• implement strategies to ease the impact of
change and decrease stress among staff
153
5
• reflect on personal attitudes, motivators,
values and beliefs that affect relationships
with colleagues
• identify personal areas in need of
improvement
• recognize that personal stress may affect
professional relationships and take steps
to manage that stress
154
Conflict management
• Conflict management is the process of
planning to avoid conflict where possible and
organizing to resolve conflict where it does
happen, as rapidly and smoothly as possible
• Conflict management involves acquiring skills
related to conflict resolution, self-awareness
about conflict modes, conflict communication
skills, and establishing a structure for
management of conflict in your environment.
155
Conflict management 2
• arrange a meeting date, place and time
• inform individual(s) before hand of the meeting
• collect background information
• analyze information collected
• be problem-oriented and not person-oriented
• give a detail description of the conflict and not
your own interpretation
• adopt and maintain a neutral posture
156
• allow individual(s) to express their opinions
• clarify facts and policies
• focus the discussion on interest and not
positions
• explore all the alternatives to the problem
• facilitate the selection of the best solution to
resolving the conflict
• plan the implementation of the decision
157
• identify in collaboration with individual(s) the
stumbling blocks to effective conflict resolution
and develop strategies to deal with them
• avoid discussing conflict in public
• reassure individual(s) of confidentiality
• avoid dealing with conflict when emotions are
high
• demonstrate fairness, justice and equality
158
• emphasize the mutual benefits of the conflict
being resolve
• avoid placing blame
• avoid aimless and useless arguments
• as much as it is possible deal with conflicts at
once
• keep parties away from each other if it becomes
necessary
159
• promote an atmosphere of mutual respect
• ensure that appropriate follow-up procedures
are in place to support nurses who have been
abused in the course of their practice
• deal with reports promptly, fairly, confidentially
• focus on the behaviors that lead to the conflict
rather than on personalities
160

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© 2003 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 11–13

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