Fundamentals of Network

A computer network is a set of computers connected together for the

purpose of sharing resources. The most common resource shared today
is connection to the Internet. Other shared resources can include a
printer or a file server.
A computer network is a system of interconnected computers for the
purpose of sharing data and resources.
Computers on a network are called nodes. Nodes can include hosts such
as personal computers, phones, servers as well as networking hardware.
Two devices are networked together when one device is able to
exchange information with the other device. The computer can be
connected to another in the two ways.
• Wired network: Computers are connected using cable media. Most
commonly Ethernet Cable, coaxial cable and optic fiber.
• Wireless network: Computers are connected using wireless media.
Radio waves are used in wireless mode.
Computer network components
 NIC(Network interface card)
• NIC is a device that helps the computer to communicate with another
device. The network interface card contains the hardware addresses,
the data-link layer protocol use this address to identify the system on
the network so that it transfers the data to the correct destination.
• There are two types of NIC: wireless NIC and wired NIC.
• Wireless NIC: All the modern laptops use the wireless NIC. In Wireless
NIC, a connection is made using the antenna that employs the radio
wave technology.
• Wired NIC: Cables use the wired NIC to transfer the data over the
medium
NIC Card

Wireless Card
Media Access Control Address (MAC address): A MAC of a device is a
unique identifier assigned to network interfaces for communications.
MAC address is a physical address of Network Interface Card. In other
words MAC addresses are linked to the hardware of network adapters.
A MAC address is given to a network adapter when it is manufactured.
Example of a MAC address:
00:0a:95:9d:68:16
 Hub
• Hub is a central device that splits the network connection into
multiple devices. When computer requests for information from a
computer, it sends the request to the Hub. Hub distributes this
request to all the interconnected computers.
Types of Hub:
• Active Hub:- These are the hubs that have their power supply and can clean,
boost, and relay the signal along with the network. It serves both as a
repeater as well as a wiring center. These are used to extend the maximum
distance between nodes.
• Passive Hub:- These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and power
supply from the active hub. These hubs relay signals onto the network
without cleaning and boosting them and can’t be used to extend the
distance between nodes.
• Intelligent Hub:- It works like an active hub and includes remote
management capabilities. They also provide flexible data rates to network
devices. It also enables an administrator to monitor the traffic passing
through the hub and to configure each port in the hub.
 Switches
• Switch is a networking device that groups all the devices over the
network to transfer the data to another device. A switch is better than
Hub as it does not broadcast the message over the network, i.e., it
sends the message to the device for which it belongs to. Therefore,
we can say that switch sends the message directly from source to the
destination.
  Bridge
• A network bridge is a computer networking device that creates a
single aggregate network from multiple communication networks or
network segments. This function is called network bridging
• Bridges were introduced to divide LANs into segments. Bridges keep a
record of all the devices on each segment. A bridge can then filter
network traffic between LAN segments. This helps reduce the amount
of traffic between devices.
  Access Point (AP)
• An access point is a device that allows wireless devices to connect to
a network.
• In a wireless local area network (WLAN), an access point is a station
that transmits and receives data. An access point connects users to
other users within the network and also can serve as the point of
interconnection between the WLAN and a fixed wire network.
• The range (radius of coverage) for Access Point indoors is 98.4 ft (30
m) and too much greater distances outdoors, it depends on the
technology used
  Firewall
• A firewall is a network security system designed to prevent
unauthorized access to or from a private network.
• Firewalls can be implemented in both hardware and software, or a
combination of both.
• Network firewalls are frequently used to prevent unauthorized
Internet users from accessing private networks connected to the
Internet, especially intranets.
• All messages entering or leaving the intranet pass through the
firewall, which examines each message and blocks those that do not
meet the specified security criteria
 Repeater
repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits
it. Repeaters are used to extend transmissions so that the signal can
cover longer distances or be received on the other side of an
obstruction. A repeater is implemented in computer networks to
expand the coverage area of the network, repropagate a weak or
broken signal and or service remote nodes. Repeaters amplify the
received/input signal to a higher frequency domain so that it is
reusable, scalable and available.
Advantages of Repeaters
• Repeaters are simple to install and can easily extend the length or the coverage area of
networks.
• They are cost effective.
• Repeaters don’t require any processing overhead. The only time they need to be
investigated is in case of degradation of performance.
• They can connect signals using different types of cables.
Disadvantages of Repeaters
• Repeaters cannot connect dissimilar networks.
• They cannot differentiate between actual signal and noise.
• They cannot reduce network traffic or congestion.
• Most networks have limitations upon the number of repeaters that can be deployed.
 Cables and connectors
• Cable is a transmission media that transmits the communication
signals. There are three types of cables:
• Twisted pair cable: It is a high-speed cable that transmits the data
over 1Gbps or more.
• Coaxial cable: Coaxial cable resembles like a TV installation cable.
Coaxial cable is more expensive than twisted pair cable, but it
provides the high data transmission speed.
• Fibre optic cable: Fibre optic cable is a high-speed cable that
transmits the data using light beams. It provides high data
transmission speed as compared to other cables. It is more expensive
as compared to other cables, so it is installed at the government level.
 RJ 45 Connector and Port
• A registered jack (RJ) is a standardized physical network interface for
connecting telecommunications or data equipment.
• RJ45 is a type of connector commonly used for Ethernet networking.
 Router
Router is a device that connects the LAN to the internet. The router is
mainly used to connect the distinct networks or connect the internet to
multiple computers.
 Modem
• Modem connects the computer to the internet over the existing
telephone line. A modem is not integrated with the computer
motherboard. A modem is a separate part on the PC slot found on the
motherboard
• A modem is a hardware device that enables a computer to send and receive data over a
telephone line or a cable or satellite connection. Modem is used to transmit digital
information via analog systems. The word "modem" is derived from the term "MOdulator
- DEModulator"
• The essential functions of a modem are:
• Modulate: an analog carrier signal to carry digital information, it means to convert the
analog signal to digital signal.
• Demodulate: a similar signal so as to decode the digital information from the analog
carrier signal and it means to convert the same signal back to the analog signal then
transmitted through telephone line.
• They are two type of modem:
• Internal modem: Internal modems are circuit boards that plug into a computer's
motherboard
• External Modem: An external modem is a discrete unit housed in a
separate case. Typically, an external modem is connected to the
telephone line and the computer via cables or USB.
• Uses Of Computer Network
• Resource sharing: Resource sharing is the sharing of resources such as
programs, printers, and data among the users on the network without the
requirement of the physical location of the resource and user.
• Server-Client model: Computer networking is used in the server-client model.
A server is a central computer used to store the information and maintained
by the system administrator. Clients are the machines used to access the
information stored in the server remotely.
• Communication medium: Computer network behaves as a communication
medium among the users. For example, a company contains more than one
computer has an email system which the employees use for daily
communication.
• E-commerce: Computer network is also important in businesses. We can do
the business over the internet. For example, amazon.com is doing their
business over the internet, i.e., they are doing their business over the internet.
• PROPERTIES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS/Features Of Computer network

• Easy Sharing of Resources: Computers are able to share various resources easily
over a network. Shared resources can be Internet, files, printer, storage and others.
• Performance: It is achieved by measuring the speed of data transmission with
number of network users, connectivity used and the software used. The commonly
measured qualities in the network performance are Bandwidth and Latency.
• Reliability: It means that computer network provides assurance of the delivery of
data to the intended recipient. Computer network can use the alternative source
for the data communication in case of any hardware failure.
• Scalability: The possibility of adding new computer without affecting the network
performance.
• Security: computer network must be secured for the benefit of the user and data
Protection. The security is achieved by protecting data from unauthorized access
• Communication speed
• Network provides us to communicate over the network in a fast and efficient
manner. For example, we can do video conferencing, email messaging, etc.
over the internet. Therefore, the computer network is a great way to share
our knowledge and ideas
• File sharing
• File sharing is one of the major advantage of the computer network.
Computer network provides us to share the files with each other
• Back up and Roll back is easy
• Since the files are stored in the main server which is centrally located.
Therefore, it is easy to take the back up from the main
• Software and Hardware sharing
• We can install the applications on the main server, therefore, the user
can access the applications centrally. So, we do not need to install the
software on every machine. Similarly, hardware can also be shared
• Advantages
• The common advantages of computer network includes:
• 1. Enhanced communication and availability of information: It allows access to a vast amount of useful
information.
• Example: Population data, newsletters, online businesses, contents, Applications.
• 2. Allow resource sharing: Fewer resources are needed when an organization uses a computer network.
• Example: Only one Printer is needed instead of buying a printer for each office.
• 3. File sharing made easy: Computer network allows people to share files, which helps to save more
time and effort.
• Example: A teacher can share homework to all students through school network
• 4. Improve storage capacity: Since you are going to share information, files and resources to other
people, you have to ensure that all data and content are properly stored in the system.
• 5.Cost efficiency: on computer network, you can share software license installed on the server and can
then be used by various workstations.
• 6.Security of information and resources: users cannot see other users' files unlike on stand-alone
machines.
• 7.Backup of data is easy as all the data is stored on the file server.
Disadvantages
• The common disadvantages of computer networking includes:
1.Lack of independence: people rely on computer network and when
the system is down, people get stack. Most of organizations depend on
the computer networks.
2.Security issues: huge number of people use a computer network to
get and share their files and resources, a certain user’s security would
be always at risk. Viruses can spread to other computers throughout a
computer network. There is a danger of hacking, particularly with wide
area networks. Security procedures are needed to prevent such abuse,
Examples: The use of Antivirus and firewall.
3.Lack of robustness: computer network’s main server breaks down,
the entire system would become useless
• Computer Network Architecture
• Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design of the
software, hardware, protocols, and media of the transmission of data. Simply we can
say that how computers are organized and how tasks are allocated to the computer
The two types of network architectures are used:
• Peer-To-Peer network
• Client/Server network
Peer-To-Peer network
• Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked together with
equal privilege and responsibilities for processing the data.
• Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10 computers.
• Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
• Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the resources, but this
can lead to a problem if the computer with the resource is down
Advantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:
• It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.
• If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop
working.
• It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.
Disadvantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:
• In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the
centralized system . Therefore, it cannot back up the data as the data
is different in different locations.
• It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.
Client/Server Network
• Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users called
clients, to access the resources such as songs, video, etc. from a central
computer known as Server.
• The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in the
network are called clients.
• A server performs all the major operations such as security and network
management.
• A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories,
printer, etc.
• All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if
client1 wants to send some data to client 2, then it first sends the request to the
server for the permission. The server sends the response to the client 1 to
initiate its communication with the client 2.
Advantages Of Client/Server network:
• A Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore
we can back up the data easily.
• A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the
overall performance of the whole system.
• Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server
administers the shared resources.
• It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.
Disadvantages Of Client/Server network:
• Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server with large
memory.
• A server has a Network Operating System(NOS) to provide the
resources to the clients, but the cost of NOS is very high.
• It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the
resources.
f

Computer Network Types

• A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that
enables the computer to communicate with another computer and
share their resources, data, and applications.
• A computer network can be categorized by their size, Number of users
connected ,Number and types of services available and Area of
responsibility.
. A computer network is mainly of four types:
• LAN(Local Area Network)
• PAN(Personal Area Network)
• MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
• WAN(Wide Area Network)
LAN(Local Area Network)
• Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other
in a small area such as building, office.
• LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through
a communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
• It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs,
network adapters, and ethernet cables.
• The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area
Network.
• Local Area Network provides higher security.
PAN(Personal Area Network)
• Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual
person, typically within a range of 10 meters.
• Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices
of personal use is known as Personal Area Network.
• Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea
of the Personal Area Network.
• Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
• Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area
network are the laptop, mobile phones, media player and play
stations.
There are two types of Personal Area Network:
• Wired Personal Area Network
• Wireless Personal Area Network
Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by simply
using wireless technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a low range network.
Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by using the USB.
Examples Of Personal Area Network:
• Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network that moves with a person. For
example, a mobile network moves with a person. Suppose a person establishes a network
connection and then creates a connection with another device to share the information.
• Offline Network: An offline network can be created inside the home, so it is also known as
a home network. A home network is designed to integrate the devices such as printers,
computer, television but they are not connected to the internet.
• Small Home Office: It is used to connect a variety of devices to the internet and to a
corporate network using a VPN
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
• A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger
geographic area by interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger
network.
• Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private
industries.
• In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a
telephone exchange line.
• The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay,
ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.
• It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).
Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:
• MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
• It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
• It can be used in a college within a city.
• It can also be used for communication in the military.
WAN(Wide Area Network)
• A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as
states or countries.
• A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
• A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
• The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
• A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and
education.
Examples Of Wide Area Network:
• Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or
country.
• Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services
to the customers in hundreds of cities by connecting their home with
fiber.
• Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the
44 offices. This network is made by using the telephone leased line
provided by the telecom company.
Advantages Of Wide Area Network:
• Following are the advantages of the Wide Area Network:
• Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical area. Suppose if the branch of
our office is in a different city then we can connect with them through WAN. The internet provides a
leased line through which we can connect with another branch.
• Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore, we do not need to buy the
emails, files or back up servers.
• Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server. Therefore, the programmers get the
updated files within seconds.
• Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast. The web application like
Facebook, Whatsapp, Skype allows you to communicate with friends.
• Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share the software and other resources
like a hard drive, RAM.
• Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.
• High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then this gives the high bandwidth. The
high bandwidth increases the data transfer rate which in turn increases the productivity of our
company.
Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:
• The following are the disadvantages of the Wide Area Network:
• Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues as compared
to LAN and MAN network as all the technologies are combined
together that creates the security problem.
• Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred on the
internet which can be changed or hacked by the hackers, so the
firewall needs to be used. Some people can inject the virus in our
system so antivirus is needed to protect from such a virus.
• High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is high as it
involves the purchasing of routers, switches.
• Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the
problem is difficult.
Internetwork
• An internetwork is defined as two or more computer network LANs or
WAN or computer network segments are connected using devices, and
they are configured by a local addressing scheme. This process is known
as internetworking.
• An interconnection between public, private, commercial, industrial, or
government computer networks can also be defined as internetworking.
• An internetworking uses the internet protocol.
• The reference model used for internetworking is Open System
Interconnection(OSI).
Types Of Internetwork:
• 1. Extranet: An extranet is a communication network based on the internet
protocol such as Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. It is
used for information sharing. The access to the extranet is restricted to only
those users who have login credentials. An extranet is the lowest level of
internetworking. It can be categorized as MAN, WAN or other computer
networks. An extranet cannot have a single LAN, atleast it must have one
connection to the external network.
• 2. Intranet: An intranet is a private network based on the internet protocol
such as Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. An intranet
belongs to an organization which is only accessible by the organization's
employee or members. The main aim of the intranet is to share the
information and resources among the organization employees. An intranet
provides the facility to work in groups and for teleconferences.
Intranet advantages:
• Communication: It provides a cheap and easy communication. An employee of the
organization can communicate with another employee through email, chat.
• Time-saving: Information on the intranet is shared in real time, so it is time-saving.
• Collaboration: Collaboration is one of the most important advantage of the
intranet. The information is distributed among the employees of the organization
and can only be accessed by the authorized user.
• Platform independency: It is a neutral architecture as the computer can be
connected to another device with different architecture.
• Cost effective: People can see the data and documents by using the browser and
distributes the duplicate copies over the intranet. This leads to a reduction in the
cost.
• Internet is a large WAN that is composed of millions of
interconnected networks.
• Example: Kigali and Nairobi networks are connected through the
Internet