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4)
The main question we want to address: what are the limitations imposed
by thermodynamic on the performance of heat engines?
Perpetual Motion Machines are Impossible
Perpetual Motion Machines of the
first type – these designs seek to violation of the First Law
create the energy required for their (energy conservation)
operation out of nothing.
Perpetual Motion Machines of the
second type - these designs extract
the energy required for their operation violation of the Second
in a manner that decreases the entropy Law
of an isolated system.
hot reservoir
Word of caution: for non-cyclic processes,
TH
100% of heat can be transformed into work
without violating the Second Law.
heat
• Work can be completely converted into heat, but the inverse is not
true. The transfer of energy by heating is accompanied with the entropy
transfer Q
dS
T
Thus, entropy enters the system with heating, but does not leave the
system with the work. On the other hand, for a continuous operation of a
heat engine, the net entropy change during a cycle must be zero!
How is it possible???
The Price Should be Paid...
An engine can get rid of all the Essential parts of a heat engine
entropy received from the hot (any continuously operating
reversible device generating work
reservoir by transferring only part
from “heat”)
of the input thermal energy to the
cold reservoir.
Q hot reservoir, TH
dS
T
heat
Thus, the only way to get rid of the
entropy
accumulating entropy is to absorb work
more internal energy in the heating
heat
process than the amount converted
to work, and to “flush” the entropy
with the flow of the waste heat out
of the system. cold reservoir, TC
An essential ingredient: a
“Working substance” – the system
temperature difference between that absorbs heat, expels waste
hot and cold reservoirs. energy, and does work (e.g., water
vapor in the steam engine)
Perfect Engines (no extra S generated)
TH TC
W QH QC QH
TH
QC
S C QC
TC Carnot efficiency:
W T
the highest possible emax 1 C 1
cold reservoir, TC value of the energy QH TH
conversion efficiency
Consequences
more fuel is needed to get rid of the entropy then to generate useful
power.
definition of efficiency
benefit
General definition: efficiency =
cost
refrigerator Qc W Qc/W
Problem [ TH = f(t) ]
A reversible heat engine operates between two reservoirs, TC and TH.. The cold reservoir
can be considered to have infinite mass, i.e., TC = T1 remains constant. However the hot
reservoir consists of a finite amount of gas at constant volume (1 mole with a specific heat
capacity cV), thus TH decreases with time (initially, TH =T2, T2 > T1). After the heat engine has
.
operated for some long period of time, the temperature TH is lowered to TC =T1
(a) Calculate the heat extracted from the hot reservoir during this period.
(b) What is the change of entropy of the hot reservoir during this period?
(c) How much work did the engine do during this period?
T
QH cV T2 T1 QH cV dTH 1
c dT T
(a) (b) dS S V H cV ln 1
TH TH T2
TH T2
(c) QH QC W T QH cV dTH
e T 1 1
QH QH TH
T1 T1
W QH 1 cV dTH 1
TH TH
T1
T T2
W 1 1 c dT
V H cV T2 T1 c T
V 1 ln
T2
TH T1
Problem Given 1 kg of water at 1000C and a very large block of ice at 00C.
A reversible heat engine absorbs heat from the water and expels heat to the ice until
work can no longer be extracted from the system. The heat capacity of water is 4.2
J/g·K. At the completion of the process:
a) What is the temperature of the water?
b) How much heat has been absorbed by the block of ice in the process?
c) How much ice has been melted (the heat of fusion of ice is 333 J/g)?
d) How much work has been done by the engine?
(a) Because the block of ice is very large, we can assume its e 1 Tice / Twater 0
temperature to be constant. When work can no longer be
extracted from the system, the efficiency of the cycle is zero: Twater Tice 00 C
(b) The heat absorbed by the block of ice:
QH QC TI
eTW , TI QC 1 eTW , TI QH 1 eTW , TI mW cW dTW mW cW dTW
QH TW
Tf 273
T dTW 373
QC I mW cW dTW TI mW cProblem
W 273K 1kg
(cont.) 4. 2kJ/kg ln 357.9kJ
T
Ti W 373
TW 273
QC 357.9 kJ
(c) The amount of melted ice: MI 1.07 kg
L 333 J/g
(d) The work : W QH QC 1kg 4.2kJ/kg K 100K - 357.9 kJ 62.1 kJ
Carnot Cycle
- is not very practical (too slow), but operates at the maximum efficiency allowed by
the Second Law.
dU 0 TdS PdV
entropy
Problem
Problem. Consider a heat engine working in a reversible cycle and using an ideal
gas with constant heat capacity cP as the working substance. The cycle
consists of two processes at constant pressure, joined by two adiabatic
processes.
(a) Which temperature of TA, TB, TC, and TD is highest, and which is lowest?
(b) Find the efficiency of this engine in terms of P1 and P2 .
(c) Show that a Carnot engine with the same gas working between the highest and
lowest temperatures has greater efficiency than this engine.
P
A (a) From the equation of state for an ideal gas (PV=RT),
B
P2 we know that
TB TA TC TD
From the adiabatic equation : TB TC TA TD
P1 Thus TB max TA , TB , TC , TD
D C TD min TA , TB , TC , TD
V
Problem (cont.)
(b) The heat absorbed from the hot reservoir QAB C P TB TA
P
A B
P2 The heat released into the cold reservoir QCD C P TC TD
QAB QCD T T
Thus, the efficiency e 1 C D
P1 D C QAB TB TA
PA PB P2 , PC PD P1 1 1
P1 P1
TA TD TB TC TD TA , TC TB
1 1 1 1 P2 P2
PA PD PB PC
1 / 1 /
TB P1 / P2 TA P1 / P2 1 /
e 1 1 P1 / P2
TB TA
1
(c) P1 TD TD
e 1 1 1 emax
P2 TA TB
Refrigerators
The purpose of a refrigerator is to make thermal
energy flow from cold to hot. The coefficient of
hot reservoir, TH
performance for a fridge:
QH QC QC 1
S H QH COP
TH W QH QC QH / QC 1
heat QH TH TC
COP COPmax
entropy
QC TC TH TC
work W
heat
P 1
work rejects
heat
heat
W
2
Q TH
S C C QC 4
TC 3 TC
absorbs heat
cold reservoir, TC V
Example: