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4)
The main question we want to address: what are the limitations imposed
by thermodynamic on the performance of heat engines?
Perpetual Motion Machines are Impossible
Perpetual Motion Machines of the
first type – these designs seek to violation of the First Law
create the energy required for their (energy conservation)
operation out of nothing.
Perpetual Motion Machines of the
second type - these designs extract
the energy required for their operation violation of the Second
in a manner that decreases the entropy Law
of an isolated system.
hot reservoir
Word of caution: for non-cyclic processes,
TH
100% of heat can be transformed into work
without violating the Second Law.
heat
entropy
Thus, the only way to get rid of the
accumulating entropy is to absorb work
more internal energy in the heating
heat
process than the amount converted
to work, and to “flush” the entropy
with the flow of the waste heat out
of the system. cold reservoir, TC
An essential ingredient: a
“Working substance” – the system
temperature difference between that absorbs heat, expels waste
hot and cold reservoirs. energy, and does work (e.g., water
vapor in the steam engine)
Perfect Engines (no extra S generated)
(to simplify equations, I’ll omit δ in δQ throughout this lecture)
The condition of continuous operation:
hot reservoir, TH QH QC
ΔS H = ΔSC = Sadi Carnot
TH TC
QH
ΔS H = QH TC
TH QC = QH
TH
heat
entropy
W
TH − TC
W = QH − QC = QH
TH
QC
ΔSC = QC
TC Carnot efficiency:
W T
the highest possible emax ≡ = 1− C < 1
cold reservoir, TC value of the energy QH TH
conversion efficiency
Consequences
Problem [ TH = f(t) ]
A reversible heat engine operates between two reservoirs, TC and TH.. The cold reservoir
can be considered to have infinite mass, i.e., TC = T1 remains constant. However the hot
reservoir consists of a finite amount of gas at constant volume (ν moles with a specific heat
capacity cV), thus TH decreases with time (initially, TH =T2, T2 > T1). After the heat engine
has
. operated for some long period of time, the temperature TH is lowered to TC =T1
(a) Calculate the heat extracted from the hot reservoir during this period.
(b) What is the change of entropy of the hot reservoir during this period?
(c) How much work did the engine do during this period?
∂Q νc dT νcV dTH
T1
QH = νcV (T2 − T1 ) T1
(a) (b) dS = H = V H
TH TH
→ ΔS = ∫
T2
TH
=νcV ln
T2
∂QH − ∂QC ∂W
e(T ) =
(c) T
= = 1− 1 ∂QH = −νcV dTH
∂QH ∂QH TH
⎛ T ⎞ ⎛ T ⎞
∂W = ∂QH ⎜⎜1 − 1 ⎟⎟ = −νcV dTH ⎜⎜1 − 1 ⎟⎟
⎝ TH ⎠ ⎝ TH ⎠
⎛ T ⎞
T1
⎟⎟νcV dTH = νcV (T2 − T1 ) −νcV T1 ln 2
T
W = − ∫ ⎜⎜1 − 1
T2 ⎝ ⎠
TH T1
Problem Given 1 kg of water at 1000C and a very large block of ice at 00C.
A reversible heat engine absorbs heat from the water and expels heat to the ice until
work can no longer be extracted from the system. The heat capacity of water is 4.2
J/g·K. At the completion of the process:
a) What is the temperature of the water?
b) How much heat has been absorbed by the block of ice in the process?
c) How much ice has been melted (the heat of fusion of ice is 333 J/g)?
d) How much work has been done by the engine?
(a) Because the block of ice is very large, we can assume its e = 1 − Tice / Twater = 0
temperature to be constant. When work can no longer be
extracted from the system, the efficiency of the cycle is zero: → Twater = Tice = 0 0 C
(b) The heat absorbed by the block of ice:
δ QH − δ QC
e(TW , TI ) = δ QC = [1 − e(TW , TI )]δ QH = −[1 − e(TW , TI )] mW cW dTW = −
TI
mW cW dTW
δ QH TW
Tf
⎛ 373 ⎞
273
T dTW
QC = − ∫ I mW cW dTW = −TI mW cProblem
W ∫ = 273K × 1kg
(cont.) × 4 . 2kJ/kg × ln ⎜ ⎟ = 357.9kJ
T
Ti W 373
TW ⎝ 273 ⎠
QC 357.9 kJ
(c) The amount of melted ice: MI = = = 1.07 kg
L 333 J/g
(d) The work : W = QH − QC = 1kg × 4.2kJ/kg ⋅ K ×100K - 357.9 kJ = 62.1 kJ
Carnot Cycle
- is not very practical (too slow), but operates at the maximum efficiency allowed by
the Second Law.
∫ dU = 0 = ∫ TdS − ∫ PdV
entropy
P
A B
(a) From the equation of state for an ideal gas (PV=RT),
P2 we know that
TB > TA TC > TD
From the adiabatic equation : TB > TC TA > TD
Thus TB = max(TA , TB , TC , TD ) TD = min (TA , TB , TC , TD )
P1 D C
V
Problem (cont.)
P (b) The heat absorbed from the hot reservoir QAB = C P (TB − TA )
QCD = C P (TC − TD )
A B
P2 The heat released into the cold reservoir
QAB − QCD T −T
Thus, the efficiency e= = 1− C D
P1 D C QAB TB − TA
TB (PC / PB ) − TA (PD / PA )
(γ −1) / γ (γ −1) / γ
= 1 − (P1 / P2 )
(γ −1) / γ
e = 1−
TB − TA
γ −1
⎛P⎞ γ TD T
(c) e = 1 − ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ = 1− < 1 − D = emax
⎝ P2 ⎠ TA TB
Stirling heat engine
Q12 = CV (T2 − T1 ) =
nR(T2 − T1 ) > 0
3
T 1-2 W12 = 0
2 3 2
T2 ⎛V ⎞
V2 V 2
dV
2-3 Q23 = ∫ PdV = nRT2 ∫ = nRT2 ln⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ > 0 Q23 = −W23
V1 V1
V ⎝ V1 ⎠
T1
Q34 = CV (T1 − T2 ) = nR(T1 − T2 ) < 0
4 3
1 3-4 W34 = 0
2
⎛ V1 ⎞
V1 V1
dV
V1 V2
4-1 Q 41 = ∫V PdV = nRT 1∫
V2
V
= nRT 1 ln ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ < 0 Q23 = −W23
⎝ V2 ⎠
2
1 QH
3
(T − T ) + T2 ln(V2 / V1 ) T
Q12 + Q23 2 2 1 3 1
= = = = 2
+ >
e QH − QC Q23 − Q41 (T2 − T1 ) ln(V2 / V1 ) T2 − T1 2 ln (V2 / V1 ) emax
Internal Combustion Engines (Otto cycle)
- engines where the fuel is burned inside the engine cylinder as opposed to that
where the fuel is burned outside the cylinder (e.g., the Stirling engine). More
economical than ideal-gas engines because a small engine can generate a
considerable power.
Otto cycle. Working substance – a mixture of air and
1
P vaporized gasoline. No hot reservoir – thermal energy
ignition
For typical numbers V1/V2 ~8 , γ ~ 7/5 → e = 0.56, (in reality, e = 0.2 – 0.3)
(even an “ideal” efficiency is smaller than the second law limit 1-T3/T1)
Otto cycle (cont.)
1
P S
ignition
wo e x
rk pa
do ns 1 Q=0 2
ne ion
by S1
4 ga
comp
ressi
s QH QC
work 2
done on
exhaust
on ga
Patm 0
s
S2 4 Q=0
3 3
intake/exhaust
V1 V2 V V1 V2 V
QC
e = 1− QH = CV (T1 − T4 ) QH = CV (T3 − T2 ) < 0
QH
P3
1− γ −1
T −T V (P − P ) VP P2 VP T ⎛ V ⎞
e = 1− 2 3 = 1− 2 2 3 = 1− 2 2 = 1 − 2 2 = 1 − 2 = 1 − ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
T1 − T4 V1 (P1 − P4 ) V1 P1 1 − P4 V1 P1 T1 ⎝ V1 ⎠
R / CV P1
R ⎛ V2 ⎞
γ −1 = e = 1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
CV ⎝ V1 ⎠
Refrigerators
The purpose of a refrigerator is to make thermal
energy flow from cold to hot. The coefficient of
hot reservoir, TH
performance for a fridge:
QH
ΔS H = QH COP ≡
QC
=
QC
=
1
TH W QH − QC QH / QC − 1
heat QH TH TC
≥ COP ≤ COPmax =
entropy
QC TC TH − TC
work W
heat