BASIC SCIENCE OF

MATERIALS
ATOMS AND ATOMIC
STRUCTURE
ATOMS
• Atoms, once thought to be the smallest building blocks of nature, are
in fact made of smaller particles.
• Most often these particles are in balance, and as such the atom is stable
and lasts nearly forever.
• Some atoms are out of balance.
• This can make them radioactive.
• Description
• Atoms are made of tiny particles called protons, neutrons and electrons. Protons
and neutrons clump together to form a central nucleus. The electrons move in a
cloud-like region around the nucleus.
• Stable
• Most atoms are stable. Their protons, neutrons and electrons balance. Barring
outside forces, a stable atom will stay the same indefinitely.
• Isotopes
• Every atom is a chemical element, like hydrogen, iron or chlorine. Every element
has cousins called isotopes. These have a different number of neutrons, but are
otherwise the same. Having excess neutrons may make isotopes radioactive.
• Radioactive
• Some atoms have too many neutrons in the nucleus, which makes them
unstable. They’re radioactive, giving off particles until they become stable.
• Ions
• Atoms with extra or missing electrons are called ions. They have a positive or
negative electric charge and are responsible for many chemical reactions.
• Antimatter
• Every atomic particle has a twin anti-particle, with an opposite electric charge.
Antimatter hydrogen atoms have been formed in the laboratory, containing an
anti-proton and anti-electron. Antimatter is very rare and fragile.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
• The properties of elements are primarily related to the electrons,
protons , and neutrons in the atomic structure.
ELECTRONS
• The electron is a particle having a mass of 9.107 x 10-28g, or 1/1837 of
the mass of the hydrogen atom
• It has a negative charge of -1.601 x 10-19 coulombs.
PROTON
• The proton has a mass of 1.672 x 10-24g, or 1836 times the mass of the
electron.
• It has a positive charge of +1.601 x 10-19 coulombs
NEUTRON
• The neutron has a mass of 1.675 x 10-24g, or 1839 times the mass of
the electron and is electrically neutral.
NUCLEUS OF THE ATOM
• It is composed of protons and neutrons which largely determine
the mass of the atom.
• The number of protons in the nucleus determines the stable
structure of the atom and therefore the number of electrons is
determined.
• The atomic number of an element is determined by the number of
protons in the nucleus
PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS
• The elements are arranged in the periodic table vertically into groups
and horizontally into periods, increasing in atomic number from left to
right in each of the periods.
• There are seven periods, a period containing hydrogen and helium,
two short periods with eight elements each, two long periods of
eighteen elements each, a very long period containing thirty-two
elements, and an incomplete period containing elements of atomic
numbers eighty-seven through ninety-eight
• The properties of the elements change systematically with increasing
atomic number.
• The elements with atomic numbers 21 through 28 in the first long
period and numbers 39 through 46 in the second long period are
designated as transition elements.
• The elements with atomic numbers 57 through 71 are the rare earth
metals and the elements with atomic numbers 90 to 98 are
designated as the actinons
• The elements in the left and central portions of the periodic table are
called metals.
• Those elements appearing in the right portion are nonmetals
• Elements that have properties intermediate to the metals and
nonmetals are called metalliods
ATOMIC BONDS
• Ionic
• Is most simply illustrated in the case of sodium chloride (NaCl) in which the
sodium and chlorine are bonded by the strong electrostatic forces that act
between anions and cations
• Covalent
• Consists of a sharing of electrons between the atoms to make a molecule
• Metallic
• The bond between metals is somewhat similar to the covalent type of bond ,
but in this instance, all atoms of the metal share each other’s electrons,
forming what may be called an electron “gas,” or “cloud”. This sharing
produces the metallic bond.
• There is a complete freedom of motion of the electrons within the metal
• This relatively free movement of the electrons in the metal accounts for
electrical and thermal conductivity and the restraint to this motion by
collision accounts for the resistivity of the material.
• The magnetic characteristics of the metallic materials are probably
associated with the motions of the electrons
• The behavior of materials when subjected to the magnetic field are
placed into one of three classes:
– Ferromagnetic
– Paramagnetic
– Diamagnetic
• Ferromagnetic
– is the basic mechanism by which certain materials (such as iron) form
permanent magnets, or are attracted to magnets. In physics, several different
types of magnetism are distinguished.
– is the strongest type; it is the only type that creates forces strong enough to
be felt, and is responsible for the common phenomena of magnetism
encountered in everyday life.
• Paramagnetic
– Are magnetically more permeable than a vacuum
– they have a small, positive susceptibility to magnetic fields. These materials
are slightly attracted by a magnetic field and the material does not retain the
magnetic properties when the external field is removed.
– these properties are due to the presence of some unpaired electrons, and
from the realignment of the electron paths caused by the external magnetic
field.
– Paramagnetic materials include magnesium, molybdenum, lithium, and
tantalum.
• Diamagnetic
– Are less permeable than a vacuum
– these materials create a magnetic field in
opposition to an externally applied magnetic
field. It is a quantum mechanical effect that
occurs in all materials; where it is the only
contribution to the magnetism the material
is called a diamagnet.
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
• When the atoms of a metal combine to produce a substance of
recognizable size, they arrange themselves in a distinct pattern in
space called a space-lattice
• A lattice is a collection of points, called lattice points, which are
arranged in a periodic pattern so that the surroundings of each point
in the lattice are identical.
• A lattice is a purely mathematical construct and is infinite in extent. A
lattice may be one-, two-, or three-dimensional.
• In one dimension, there is only one possible lattice:
It is a line of points with the points separated from
each other by an equal distance, as shown in the
figure.
• A lattice is the framework that is used to replicate the atomic
arrangement of the sample.
• Lattice sites (also known as a lattice points) are identical points on a
lattice. This means that they have the same atoms on and
surrounding the point.
• A lattice site is not necessarily an atom. A lattice site can have more
than 1 atom associated with it.
X X
X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X
X X
• A group of one or more atoms located in a particular way with respect
to each other and associated with each lattice point is known as the
basis or motif.
• The basis must contain at least one atom, but it may contain many
atoms of one or more types.
• A basis is the one or more atoms that are clustered on a lattice site to
recreate the crystal structure.
• A unit cell is the 3-D cube that is repeated throughout space to create
the atomic arrangement of the sample.
• The edges of the cubes are not necessarily atomic bonds. They usually
aren’t! They are just there to make the box easier to draw.
• The unique three-dimensional
arrangements of lattice points
are known as the Bravais
lattices.
THERE ARE 7 CRYSTAL SYSTEMS AND 14
BRAVAIS LATTICES
• The fourteen Bravais lattices are grouped into seven crystal systems.
• The seven crystal systems are known as cubic, tetragonal,
orthorhombic, rhombohedral (also known as trigonal), hexagonal,
monoclinic, and triclinic. Note that for the cubic crystal system, we
have simple cubic (SC), face-centered cubic (FCC), and body-centered
cubic (BCC) Bravais lattices.
Simple cubic with a basis of 1 has 1 atom per
lattice site. X
X

X
X

• The easiest of the structures we will look at is simple cubic.

Ball & Stick
X X
Model
When counting the lattice sites or X
X
atoms in a unit cell, you must only
count the fraction in that cell. Start with the SC lattice

Each corner lattice site and atom Add a basis of 1 atom per lattice site
are only 1/8th in this unit cell. to get the unit cell

With a basis of 1 atom per lattice How the atoms

site, this structure has really fill the
1/8 * 8 = 1 lattice sites/ unit cell space
1/8 * 8 = 1 atoms/ unit cell
Figure from Callister
SC with a basis of 1 has a coordination
number of 6
• For SC structures with a basis of 1 atom per lattice
site, the atoms touch (are bonded) along the cube
edges.

• The atoms have a coordination number (number

of atoms they are bonded to) of 6.

Figures from Callister

CLOSEST PACKED STRUCTURES
• The term "closest packed structures" refers to the most tightly packed
or space-efficient composition of crystal structures (lattices).
• Imagine an atom in a crystal lattice as a sphere. While cubes may
easily be stacked to fill up all empty space, unfilled space will always
exist in the packing of spheres.
• To maximize the efficiency of packing and minimize the volume of
unfilled space, the spheres must be arranged as close as possible to
each other.
• These arrangements are called closest packed structures.
• The packing of spheres can describe the solid structures of crystals. In
a crystal structure, the centers of atoms, ions, or molecules lie on the
lattice points. Atoms are assumed to be spherical to explain the
bonding and structures of metallic crystals. These spherical particles
can be packed into different arrangements. In closest packed
structures, the arrangement of the spheres are densely packed in
order to take up the greatest amount of space possible.
TYPES OF HOLES FROM CLOSE-PACKING OF
SPHERES
• When a single layer of spheres is arranged into the shape of a hexagon, gaps are
left uncovered. The hole formed between three spheres is called a trigonal
hole because it resembles a triangle. In the example below, two out of the six
trigonal holes have been highlighted green.
• Once the first layer of spheres is laid down, a second layer may be placed on top
of it. The second layer of spheres may be placed to cover the trigonal holes from
the first layer. Holes now exist between the first layer (the orange spheres) and
the second (the lime spheres), but this time the holes are different. The
triangular-shaped hole created over a orange sphere from the first layer is known
as a tetrahedral hole. A hole from the second layer that also falls directly over a
hole in the first layer is called an octahedral hole.
CLOSEST PACK CRYSTAL
STRUCTURES
HEXAGONAL CLOSEST PACKED (HCP)
• In a hexagonal closest packed structure, the third layer has
the same arrangement of spheres as the first layer and covers
all the tetrahedral holes. Since the structure repeats itself
after every two layers, the stacking for hcp may be described
as "a-b-a-b-a-b." The atoms in a hexagonal closest packed
structure efficiently occupy 74% of space while 26% is empty
space.
CUBIC CLOSEST PACKED (CCP)
• The arrangement in a cubic closest packing also
efficiently fills up 74% of space. Similar to hexagonal
closest packing, the second layer of spheres is placed on
to of half of the depressions of the first layer. The third
layer is completely different than that first two layers
and is stacked in the depressions of the second layer,
thus covering all of the octahedral holes. The spheres in
the third layer are not in line with those in layer A, and
the structure does not repeat until a fourth layer is
added. The fourth layer is the same as the first layer, so
the arrangement of layers is "a-b-c-a-b-c."
COORDINATION NUMBER AND NUMBER OF
ATOMS PER UNIT CELL
• A unit cell is the smallest representation of an entire crystal. All crystal lattices are
built of repeating unit cells. In a unit cell, an atom's coordination number is the
number of atoms it is touching.
• The hexagonal closest packed (hcp) has a coordination number of 12 and contains
6 atoms per unit cell.
• The face-centered cubic (fcc) has a coordination number of 12 and contains 4
atoms per unit cell.
• The body-centered cubic (bcc) has a coordination number of 8 and contains 2
atoms per unit cell.
• The simple cubic has a coordination number of 6 and contains 1 atom per unit
cell.
CRYSTALS
• A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose
constituents, such as atoms, molecules or ions, are
arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure,
forming a crystal lattice that extends in all directions. In
addition, macroscopic single crystals are usually
identifiable by their geometrical shape, consisting of flat
faces with specific, characteristic orientations.
• Is formed when lattices combine to form a three-
dimensional array of atoms
• Grains
– are crystals that are irregular in shape
CRYSTALLINE SUBSTANCE
• Is one in which the atoms are arranged in a definite and repeating
order
AMORPHOUS MATERIALS
• Amorphous materials are ubiquitous in natural and engineered
systems. Granular fault gouge in earthquakes faults, thin film
lubricants, and bulk metallic glasses are seemingly disparate systems
which are similar in that they possess an amorphous structure.
Colloids, emulsions, window glass, dense polymers, and even
biological tissues are other examples.
• The scientific study of crystals and crystal formation is known
as crystallography. The process of crystal formation via mechanisms of
crystal growth is called crystallization or solidification.
• Examples of large crystals include snowflakes, diamonds, and table
salt.
• Most inorganic solids are not crystals but polycrystals, i.e. many
microscopic crystals fused together into a single solid.
• Examples of polycrystals include most metals, rocks, ceramics, and
ice.
• A third category of solids is amorphous solids, where the atoms have
no periodic structure whatsoever.
• Amorphous solids are comprised of particles (atoms, grains, bubbles,
molecules) arranged so that the locations of their centers of mass are
disordered; their structure is essentially indistinguishable from a
liquid.
• Examples of amorphous solids include glass, wax, and many plastics.
Law of Rational Indices
• The law of rational indices states that the intercepts, OP, OQ, OR, of the
natural faces of a crystal form with the unit-cell axes a, b, c (see Figure
1) are inversely proportional to prime integers, h, k, l. They are called
the Miller indices of the face. They are usually small because the
corresponding lattice planes are among the densest and have therefore
a high interplanar spacing and low indices.
CRYSTALLIZATION
• Crystallization is the (natural or artificial) process of formation of
solid crystals from a homogeneous solution or melt, or more rarely
directly from a gas. This process is often used as a technique to
separate a solute from a liquid solution, bringing it into a pure
crystalline phase.
• Crystallization is a valuable process for both research and industrial
applications. Some industries are set up for the mass production of
crystals, such as the production of edible salt (in powder form), silicon
wafers, and sucrose from sugar beet. In addition, chemists and
biochemists use the pure crystals of substances to determine their
molecular structures, with techniques such as X-ray crystallography
and NMR spectroscopy.
PROCESS
• For a solute to crystallize out of a solution, the solution must be
supersaturated with the solute. This means that the solution has to
contain more solute entities (atoms, molecules, or ions) dissolved
than it would contain under the equilibrium conditions (of a saturated
solution).
• The crystallization process consists of two major
steps: nucleation and crystal growth.
• In the nucleation step, the solute molecules dispersed in
the solvent start to gather into clusters (on the nanometer scale).
• When these clusters become stable, they constitute the nuclei.
• However, when the clusters are not stable, they redissolve.
• Therefore, the clusters need to reach a critical size to become stable
nuclei.
• The critical size is dictated by the prevailing conditions, such as
temperature and supersaturation. It is at the stage of nucleation that
the atoms or molecules arrange themselves in a particular periodic
manner that defines the crystal structure.
• Crystal growth corresponds to growth of the nuclei that succeed in
achieving critical cluster size. Nucleation and growth continue to
occur simultaneously as long as the solution is supersaturated with
the solute. The solution that remains after a crystallization process is
called the mother liquor.
• Supersaturation is the driving force of the crystallization process—the
rates of nucleation and growth are driven by supersaturation within
the solution.
• Depending upon the conditions, either nucleation or growth may
predominate over the other, and as a result, crystals with different
sizes and shapes are obtained.
• (The control of crystal size and shape constitutes one of the main
challenges in industrial manufacturing, such as for pharmaceuticals.)
• Once the solution is no longer supersaturated, the solid-liquid system
reaches equilibrium and crystallization is complete, unless the
operating conditions are modified from equilibrium so that the
solution becomes supersaturated again.
• Many compounds can crystallize with different crystal structures, a phenomenon
called polymorphism.
• Each crystal polymorph is a different thermodynamic solid state.
• Crystal polymorphs of the same compound exhibit different physical properties,
such as dissolution rate, shape (angles between facets and facet growth rates),
melting point, and so on.
• For this reason, polymorphism is of major importance in the industrial
manufacture of crystalline products.
CRYSTALLIZATION IN NATURE
• There are many examples of crystallization in nature, some of which
are noted below.
• Examples of crystallization on the geological time scale:
• Formation of minerals, including gemstones.
• Formation of stalactites and stalagmites.
• Examples of crystallization on ordinary time scales:
• Formation of snowflakes.
• Crystallization of honey.
ARTIFICIAL METHODS
• For artificial crystallization of a solute from solution, the conditions
must be adjusted such that the solution becomes supersaturated with
the solute. This can be achieved by various methods, such as:
• cooling the solution;
• evaporating part of the solvent;
• adding a second solvent that reduces the solubility of the solute (technique
known as anti-solvent or drown-out);
• changing the pH of the solution; and
• performing a chemical reaction.
APPLICATIONS
• Artificial crystallization includes two major groups of applications:
crystal production and purification.
CRYSTAL PRODUCTION
• From the perspective of the materials industry:
• To meet the demand for crystals that simulate natural crystals, there are
methods that accelerate the rate of production and crystal perfection. They
include ionic crystal production and covalent crystal production.
• To produce tiny crystals, such as those in powder or even smaller
sizes, methods include:
• Mass-production by the chemical industry, such as salt-powder production.
• Sample production of tiny crystals for the characterization of materials.
Controlled recrystallization is an important method to produce unusual
crystals that are needed to reveal the molecular structure and nuclear forces
within molecules that form crystals. Many techniques, such as X-ray
crystallography and NMR spectroscopy, are widely used in chemical and
biochemical research to determine the structures of a wide variety of
molecules, including inorganic compounds and biological macromolecules.
• Thin film production.
• Examples of the mass production of crystalline materials include:
• "Powder salt for food" industry.
• Silicon crystal wafer production.
• Production of sucrose from sugar beet, where the sucrose is crystallized out
of aqueous solution.
PURIFICATION
• Well-formed crystals are expected to be pure because each molecule or ion must
fit perfectly into the lattice as it leaves the solution.
• Impurities would normally not fit as well in the lattice, and thus remain in
solution preferentially.
• Hence, molecular recognition is the principle of purification in crystallization.
• However, there are instances when impurities are incorporated into the lattice,
thus decreasing the level of purity of the final crystalline product.
• Also, in some cases, the solvent may be incorporated into the lattice, forming
a solvate.
• In some cases, the solvent may be 'trapped' in the liquid state within the crystal,
forming what are known as inclusions.
• Depending on the nature of the crystal system, crystals of a substance consist of
only one enantiomer.
• Louis Pasteur discovered chirality when he was able to separate enantiomeric
crystals from racemic tartaric acid.
ALLOTROPY
• The ability of a substance to exist in more than one lattice form is
known as allotropy
• The change that occurs is called allotropic transformation
• Titanium is one of many metallic elements that exhibit allotropy
PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
• BY: ENGR. MARIZEN B. CONTRERAS
MATERIALS PROPERTIES AND
MATERIALS ENGINEERING
• Engineers make things. They make them out of materials. What do
they need to know to choose and use materials successfully?
– First, a perspective of the world of materials - polymers, glasses, ceramics,
composites and so forth - and of processes that can shape, join and finish
them.
– Second, an understanding of the origins of these properties and of the ways
that they can be manipulated.
• Third, they need methods for selecting from these menus the materials and
processes that best meet the requirements of a design.
• Fourth, they need access to data for material attributes and - since the
quantity of data is large - computer-based tools to enable their
implementation.
• And, of course, they need common sense: the ability to use experience and
knowledge of the world at large to recognise inspired choices and to reject
those that are impractical.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
• The characteristics of a material that relate to its behavior in chemical
reactions are called chemical properties.
• The concern with chemical properties of materials are connected with
corrosion, alloying, compound formation and so forth
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
• Those distinguishing qualities or characteristics that are used to
describe a substance in the absence of external forces are referred to
as physical properties
• A description of the physical behavior of a material would include
such characteristics as specific heat, thermal conductivity, coefficient
of expansion, color, refractive index, density, and electrical resistivity.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
• Those properties which describe the behavior of materials under the
application of force are called mechanical properties
• Such characteristics as strength, hardness, machinability, ductility,
elasticity, and plasticity are included with this designation.
MECHANICAL TEST
• A mechanical test may be defined as one in which all of the variables
affecting a given property are controlled and the property in question
is measured under fixed conditions
STRAIN
• Is the deformation caused by the application of an external force

• When the material is said to be under a strain, the material has

undergone some deformation as the result of the application of an
external force.
STRESS
• When a material is placed in a state of strain resulting from an
external load, the atoms making up the structure of the material are
displaced somewhat from their equilibrium positions.
• These internally distributed forces which tend to resist deformation
may be defined qualitatively as stress.
• Quantitatively, stress is defined as force per unit area.
TYPES OF STRESS
• Tension
• Compression
• Shear
ELASTICITY
• The property of regaining the original shape upon removal of external
load is known as elasticity
ELASTIC BEHAVIOR
• If a material exhibits true elastic behavior, it must have an
instantaneous response (deformation) to load, and the material must
return to its original shape when the load is removed.
• Young observed that different elastic materials have different
proportional constants between stress and strain.
YOUNG’S MODULUS
• The ratio of stress to strain within the limit of proportionality is known
as modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus

𝜎 𝑃𝐿
𝐸= =
𝜀 𝐴∆ 𝐿
POISSON’S RATIO
• In the axial tension test, as the material is elongated, there is a
reduction of the cross section in the lateral direction.
• In the axial compression test, the opposite is true.
• The ratio of the lateral strain, ɛl , to the axial strain, ɛg .
HOOKE’S LAW
• States formally that within the elastic range of materials, stress is
proportional to strain
• The ratio of the stress to strain within the limit of proportionality is
known as the modulus of elasticity, or Young’s modulus, which may be
written symbolically
Example:
• A cube made of an alloy with dimensions of 50 mm x 50 mm x 50 mm
is placed into a pressure chamber and subjected to a pressure of 90
MPa. If the modulus of elasticity of the alloy is 100 GPa and Poisson’s
ratio is 0.28, what will be the length of each side of the cube,
assuming that the material remains within the elastic region?
Solution:
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
• The modulus of elasticity is a measure of the stiffness of the material,
but it only applies in the linear region of the curve.
• If a specimen is loaded within this linear region, the material will
return to its exact same condition if the load is removed. At the point
that the curve is no longer linear and deviates from the straight-line
relationship, Hooke's Law no longer applies and some permanent
deformation occurs in the specimen. This point is called the "elastic,
or proportional, limit".
• From this point on in the tensile test, the material reacts plastically to
any further increase in load or stress. It will not return to its original,
unstressed condition if the load were removed.
BULK MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
• Also called the volume modulus
• It is the ratio of the uniform, triaxial stress to the change in volume
MODULUS OF RUPTURE
• The modulus of rupture of a material is computed strength which
does not bear a specific relationship to the maximum stress the
material will sustain before fracture, but provides a value from which
the maximum twisting moment in torsion or the maximum bending
moment in bending that a cylindrical shaft or a beam can resist.
PLASTICITY
• Is the property of a material by virtue of which permanent
deformation can occur.
• It is the opposite of elasticity
• A dislocation is an imperfection in the crystal structure
• Twinning is a process that results in an alteration of the orientation of
one part of a crystal in relation to the other part of the same crystal.
• The plane that separates the parts of different orientation is called the
twinning plane.
TENSION TEST
• It is probably the most fundamental type of mechanical test you can
perform on material. Tensile tests are simple, relatively inexpensive,
and fully standardized. By pulling on something, you will very quickly
determine how the material will react to forces being applied in
tension. As the material is being pulled, you will find its strength along
with how much it will elongate.
STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS IN
TENSION
PROPORTIONAL LIMIT
• The maximum stress to which a material can be subjected without
any deviation from the proportionality of stress and strain is called
the proportional limit.
ELASTIC LIMIT
• The maximum stress to which a material may be subjected without
the occurrence of any permanent strain remaining upon complete
release of the stress is called the elastic limit.
RESILIENCE
• The capacity of a material to absorb energy within the elastic range is
known as resilience.
• This is potential energy which can be recovered upon removal of the
stress
• Quantitatively, the amount of energy per unit volume which the
material will possess when subjected to the elastic limit stress is
called the modulus of resilience
YIELD POINT
• Stress at which strain increases without accompanying increase in
stress. Only a few materials (notably steel) have a yield point, and
generally only under tension loading.
YIELD STRENGTH
• A value called "yield strength" of a material is defined as the stress
applied to the material at which plastic deformation starts to occur
while the material is loaded.
ULTIMATE STRENGTH
• The maximum stress to which a material may be subjected before
failure occurs is called the ultimate strength.
• If this property is determined in tension it is known as the ultimate
tensile strength.
• If this property is determined in compression it is known as the
ultimate compressive strength
ELASTOPLASTIC BEHAVIOR
• Materials that do not undergo plastic deformation prior to failure are
said to be brittle.
• Materials that display appreciable plastic deformation are ductile.
• Ductile materials are preferred for construction.
• When a brittle material fails, the structure can collapse in a
catastrophic manner.
• On the other hand, overloading a ductile material will result in
distortions of the structure, but the structure will not necessarily
collapse.
DUCTILITY
• Extent to which a material can sustain plastic deformation without
rupture.
• Elongation and reduction of area are common indices of ductility.
Example:
• A rod made of aluminum alloy, with a gauge length of 100 mm,
diameter of 10 mm, and yield strength of 150 MPa, was subjected to
a tensile load of 5.85 kN. If the gauge length was changed to 100.1
mm and the diameter was changed to 9.9967 mm. calculate the
modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio.
Solution: P 5850 N
   74.5MPa
A  5 10 m 
 3 2

Since the applied stress is well below the yield strength,

the material is within th e elastic region.
L (100.1  100)
a    0.001
L 100
 74.5
E   74,500 MPa  74.5GPa
 a 0.001
change in diameter 9.9967  10
l    0.00033
diameter 10
  l 0.00033
v   0.33
a .001
REDUCTION OF AREA
• Ductility may also be indicated by the reduction of area of a specimen
at the point of fracture.
• The reduction of area is expressed as the ratio of the decrease in area
of the necked-down section of the test specimen to the original area
on a percentage basis.
TOUGHNESS
• The word toughness is a qualitative term meaning difficult to break.
• It usually implies resistance to shock
• Modulus of toughness
• Is a measure of the total energy-absorbing capacity of the material and
includes the energy of both the elastic and plastic deformation
FRACTURE IN BRITTLE AND
DUCTILE MATERIALS
• In ductile materials, fracture occurs through the grains of the
material. The failure is therefore referred to as transcrystalline.
• If, however, the grains themselves are much stronger than the
material at the grain boundaries, fracture may occur at the grain
boundary. Failure under this condition is called intercrystalline failure
and the material is said to be brittle.
BEND TESTING
• Bend testing measures the ductility of materials. Terms associated
with bend testing apply to specific forms or types of materials.
• For example, materials specifications sometimes require that a
specimen be bent to a specified inside diameter (ASTM A-360, steel
products).
• Bend testing provides a convenient method for characterizing the
strength of the miniature components and specimens that are typical
of those found in microelectronics applications.
COMPRESSION TEST
• A compression test determines behavior of materials under crushing
loads. The specimen is compressed and deformation at various loads
is recorded.
• Compressive stress and strain are calculated and plotted as a stress-
strain diagram which is used to determine elastic limit, proportional
limit, yield point, yield strength and, for some materials, compressive
strength.
MALLEABILITY
• If a material can be severely deformed plastically in
compression without fracture, the material is said to
be malleable
• It is that quality of a material by virtue of which it may
be plastically compressed
HARDNESS
• Hardness is a characteristic of a material, not a fundamental physical
property.
• It is defined as the resistance to indentation, and it is determined by
measuring the permanent depth of the indentation.
• More simply put, when using a fixed force (load) and a given indenter,
the smaller the indentation, the harder the material.
• Indentation hardness value is obtained by measuring the depth or the
area of the indentation using one of over 12 different test methods.
HARDNESS TESTING
CONSIDERATIONS
• The following sample characteristics should be consider prior to
selecting the hardness testing method to use:
• Sample Size
• Cylindrical Samples
• Sample Thickness
• Scales
• Gage Repeatability and Reproducibility
BRINELL TEST
ROCKWELL TEST
DIAMOND PYRAMID HARDNESS
SCLEROSCOPE TEST
MICROHARDNESS TEST
• Microhardness testing is a method of determining a material’s
hardness or resistance to penetration when test samples are very
small or thin, or when small regions in a composite sample or plating
are to be measured.
• The microhardness test can measure surface to core hardness on
carburized or case-hardened parts (case depths), as well as surface
conditions such as grinding burns, carburization or decarburization.
RELATION OF STRENGTH TO
HARDNESS
• The difference between strength and hardness is that the strength
refers to the force that is present between the bonds. Strength
attributes to how strong or weak the force between the bonds.
• Hardness refers to the nature of the force, which basically is how rigid
or flexible the bonds between particles.
STRAIN HARDENING
• Strain hardening is generally defined as heating at a
relatively low temperature after cold-working. During
strain hardening the strength of the metal is increased
and ductility decreased.
• If a low-carbon steel is cold-worked, or strained passed the yield
point, then aged for several days at room temperature, it will have a
higher yield stress after the aging. This happens because during the
aging carbon or nitrogen atoms diffuse to dislocations, reanchoring
them.
• Not everything can be strain aged, or recovered at low temperatures.
The low carbon steel is just an example. Different materials will show
different behaviors during recovery.
RECRYSTALLIZATION
FACTORS AFFECTING
RECRYSTALLIZATION
• The severity of plastic deformation
• The grain size prior to plastic deformation
• The temperature at which plastic deformation occurs
• The time for which the plastically deformed metal is heated to attain
recrystallization
• The presence of dissolved or undissolved elements
• Hot working
• Is defined as plastic deformation at temperatures above recrystallization
temperature
• Cold working
• Is defined as plastic deformation at temperatures below recrystallization
temperature
FATIGUE
• Permanent structural change that occurs in a material subjected to
fluctuating stress and strain. However, in the case of glass, fatigue is
determined by long-term static testing and is analogous to stress
rupture in other materials. In general, fatigue failure can occur with
stress levels below the elastic limit.
ENDURANCE LIMIT
• In fatigue testing, the maximum stress which can be applied to a
material for an infinite number of stress cycles without resulting in
failure of the material.
ENDURANCE STRENGTH
• A measure of the ability of a material or structural element to carry a
load without failure when the loading is repeated a definite number
of times.
FATIGUE FAILURE
• Failures which take place as a result of repeated or alternating
stresses
FACTORS AFFECTING ENDURANCE
PROPERTIES
• Surface finish
• Size factor
• Reliability factor
• Temperature factor
• Load factor
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON
PROPERTIES
• Loss of metal as a result of oxidation or exposure to contaminating
media
• The formation of surface cracks resulting from cyclic thermal stresses
• The change in the properties of the material with increasing
temperature
CREEP
• creep (sometimes called cold flow) is the tendency of a solid material
to move slowly or deform permanently under the influence of
mechanical stresses.
• It can occur as a result of long-term exposure to high levels of stress
that are still below the yield strength of the material.
• Creep is more severe in materials that are subjected to heat for long
periods, and generally increases as they near their melting point.
• Creep always increases with temperature.
STRESS RUPTURE
• A preliminary evaluation of the elevated temperature properties of
materials may be secured by means of stress rupture test
• This test is satisfactory for many applications where the intended
operating life of the part in which the material is to be used is limited
or for applications in which a considerable amount of deformation
may be tolerated.
DYNAMIC LOADING
• A static load is the effect of gravity on an object or structure.
• A dynamic load is the forces that move or change when acting on a
structure.
• Example of a dynamic load: Force of wind or the weight of a truck
• Example of a static load: Weight of a bridge
FACTOR OF SAFETY
• Allowable Stress
• Is that stress below which it is known that failure will not take place
• Under static conditions, the allowable stress would be the elastic limit; under
repeated stress, the allowable stress would be the endurance limit
• Working Stress
• Is the actual stress under which the material is expected to operate
• Factor of Safety
• The ratio of allowable stress to working stress
• The choice of the factor of safety to be employed depends upon the following
variables:
• Variations of the properties of the materials
• The uncertainties of computations of stress, magnitude, and stress contribution on the
basis of assumptions that have been necessary in the theory employed.
• Quality of the manufacturing operations
• Dangers of personal injury from failure of the part or of undue financial loss
• The necessity of maintaining economy of material and of minimizing weight
• The influence of uncertainties such as may be experienced in corrosion and unforeseen
types of loading
• Extent of inspection
NONMECHANICAL PROPERTIES
• It refers to characteristics of the material, other than load response,
that affect selection, use and performance.
• Density- is the mass per unit volume of material
• Unit Weight- is the weight per unit volume of material
• Specific gravity- ratio of the mass of a substance relative to the mass
of an equal volume of water at specified temperature.
• Coefficient of Thermal Expansion- the amount of expansion per unit
length due to one unit of temperature increase is a material constant

 L  linear coefficien t of thermal expansion

L V  volumetric coefficent of thermal expansion
L  T
L  change in the length of the specimen
L T  change in tempera ture
V L  original length of the specimen
V  T
V  change in the volume of the specimen
V V  original volume of the specimen
Example:
• A steel bar with a length of 3 m, diameter of 25 mm, modulus of
elasticity of 207 Gpa, and linear coefficient of thermal expansion of
0.000009 m/m/C is fixed at both ends when the ambient temperature
is 40C. If the ambient temperature is decreased to 15c, what internal
stress will develop due to this temperature change? Is this stress or
tension?
Solution:
L   L  T  L
 0.000009  (25)  3  0.000675m
  L L   0.000675 3  0.000225
  E
 0.000225  20700  46.575MPa
The stress will be tension: in effect, the length of
the bar at 15˚C without restraint would be
2.999325m and the stress would be zero.
Restraining the bar into longer condition requires a
tensile force.
CORROSION AND DEGREDATION
• Crystalline materials deteriorate through a corrosion process.
• Polymers deteriorate by degradation.
• The selection of material should consider both how the material will
react with the environment and the cost of preventing the resulting
degradation.
ABRASION AND WEAR RESISTANCE
• Is of less importance than in other fields of engineering.
• Resistance to abrasion and wear, is, therefore, an important property
of aggregates used in pavements
SURFACE TEXTURE
• Is of importance to engineers.
• A certain level of surface texture is needed in the pavement surface to
provide adequate friction resistance and prevent skidding
SELECTION OF MATERIALS
• The material must satisfy the strength requirements
• The material must be capable of being fabricated into the desired
form
• The cost of the material must be low
• The material must be available for use at the required time
MATERIALS SCIENCE AND
ENGINEERING
ENGR. MARIZEN B. CONTRERAS
THE ROLE OF MATERIALS IN
TECHNOLOGICALLY ADVANCED SOCIETIES
• Damascus Sword
• These swords are characterized by
distinctive patterns of banding and
mottling reminiscent of flowing water.
Such blades were reputed to be tough,
resistant to shattering and capable of
being honed to a sharp, resilient edge
• Miniaturized Transistor
Technology
• The result has been an electronics
revolution
• Aerospace Industry
• Light, strong alloys of aluminium
and titanium have fostered the
development of more efficient
airframes, while the discovery and
improvement of nickel-base alloys
spurred development of powerful,
efficient jet engines to propel
these planes.
• Telecommunications
• Optical fiber is used by many
telecommunications companies to
transmit telephone signals,
Internet communication, and
cable television signals. Due to
much lower attenuation and
interference, optical fiber has
large advantages over existing
copper wire in long-distance and
high-demand applications.
THE ENGINEERING PROFESSION AND
MATERIALS
• It all about the raw materials and how they are processed
• That is why we call it materials ENGINEERING
• Minor differences in raw materials or processing parameters can
mean major changes in the performance of the final material or
product
MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
• Materials Science
• The discipline of investigating the relationships that exist between
the structures and properties of materials.

• Materials Engineering
• The discipline of designing or engineering the structure of a
material to produce a predetermined set of properties based on
established structure-property correlation.
• Four Major Components of Material Science and
Engineering:
• Structure of Materials
• Properties of Materials
• Processing of Materials
• Performance of Materials
REMEMBER: MATERIALS “DRIVE” OUR
SOCIETY!
• Ages of “Man” we survive based on
the materials we control
• Stone Age – naturally occurring
materials
• Special rocks, skins, wood
• Bronze Age
• Casting and forging
• Iron Age
• High Temperature furnaces
• Steel Age
• High Strength Alloys
• Non-Ferrous and Polymer Age
• Aluminum, Titanium and Nickel
(superalloys) – aerospace
• Silicon – Information
• Plastics and Composites – food
preservation, housing, aerospace
and higher speeds
• Exotic Materials Age?
• Nano-Material and bio-Materials –
they are coming and then …
DOING MATERIALS
• Engineered Materials are a function of:
• Raw Materials Elemental Control
• Processing History
• Our Role in Engineering Materials then is to understand the
application and specify the appropriate material to do the job as a
function of:
• Strength: yield and ultimate
• Ductility, flexibility
• Weight/density
• Working Environment
• Cost: Lifecycle expenses, Environmental impact*

* Economic and Environmental Factors often are the

most important when making the final decision!
ENGINEERING MATERIALS
• Metal / Metallic materials
• Generally classified as ferrous and nonferrous
• Ferrous materials consist of steel and cast iron
• Carbon steel, high alloy steel, iron-base materials
• Nonferrous materials consist of the rest of the metals and
alloys
• Aluminium, magnesium, titanium & their alloys
• Materials from each group are further classified and given certain
designation according to the ASTM standard
• Each has their own unique number/code that represent main alloying
elements, cast or wrought and in case of plain carbon – amount of
carbon.
MAJOR CLASSES OF MATERIALS
• Materials are grouped according to their similar chemical make-
up, atomic structure and/or engineering properties.

• There is an intimate link between the chemical and physical

structure of materials and their mechanical, electrical, thermal,
optical, magnetic and deteriorative properties.
METALS
• Elemental substances capable of changing their shape permanently
• Good conductors of heat and electricity
• Maybe ferrous or non ferrous
• The behavior and properties of ferrous metals depends on the form (phase
and constituents) of the carbon present in them
The difference between steel and iron and their specific names according to
percentage of carbon
STEEL AND IRON ON THE BASIS OF PERCENTAGE OF CARBON
PERCENTAGE OF CARBON SPECIFIC NAMES ABBREVIATED STEEL OR IRON
NAME
Purest to 0.05 Wrought Iron WI Plain carbon steel
0.05 to 0.10 Dead mild steel DMS Plain carbon steel
0.10 to 0.30 Mild steel MS Plain carbon steel
0.30 to 0.70 Medium carbon steel MCS Plain carbon steel
0.70 to 1.50 High carbon steel HCS Plain carbon steel
1.50 to 2.00 Semisteel or semi-iron - -
2.00 to 4.50 Cast iron (grey, white, mottled, CI Iron
spongy, malleable, chilled, spheroidal,
nodular)
4.50 to 6.67 Pig iron PI Iron
6.67 or more Ore - Iron
NONFERROUS METALS
• Do not contain Fe and C as their constituents
• Examples are:
• Aluminum, copper, silver, nickel, zinc, tin, chromium, etc.
• Al, Cu, Ag, Au are good conductors of electricity; Ag is the most malleable, Au
is the most ductile, and chromium is corrosion resistant Zinc is used in metal
plating, tin is used to make brushes, and nickel imparts strength and creep
resistance
CERAMICS
• Generally metallic or non-metallic oxides
• Physically separable and chemically homogenous constituents of
materials consisting of phases are also ceramics
• Rocks, glasses, fireclay and bricks, cements and limes
• Ferrites, garnets, ferroelectrics and ceramic superconductors are the
latest developments in this area
ORGANIC POLYMERS
• Organic polymers play a crucial role in living things, providing basic
structural materials and participating in vital life processes.
• For example, the solid parts of all plants are made up of polymers.
• These include cellulose, lignin, and various resins.
• Cellulose is a polysaccharide, a polymer that is composed of sugar molecules.
• Lignin consists of a complicated three-dimensional network of polymers.
• Wood resins are polymers of a simple hydrocarbon, isoprene.
• Another familiar isoprene polymer is rubber.
• Examples are: Bakelite, polyethylene, nylon and Teflon
ALLOYS
• Alloys are metallic compounds made up of one metal and one or
more metal or non-metal elements.
• Examples of common alloys:
• Steel: A combination of iron (metal) and carbon (non-metal)
• Bronze: A combination of copper (metal) and tin (metal)
• Brass: A mixture of copper (metal) and zinc (metal)
COMPOSITES
• A composite is a material made from two or more different materials that, when
combined, are stronger than those individual materials by themselves.
• The component materials don’t completely blend or lose their individual
identities; they combine and contribute their most useful traits to improve the
outcome or final product.
• Composites are typically designed with a particular use in mind, such as added
strength, efficiency or durability.
• Composites, also known as Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) composites, are made
from a polymer matrix that is reinforced with an engineered, man-made or
natural fiber (like glass, carbon or aramid) or other reinforcing material.
Nonferrous Metals and
Alloys
By: Engr. Marizen B. Contreras
Copper
• Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from Latin:
cuprum) and atomic number 29.
• It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity.
• Pure copper is soft and malleable; a freshly exposed surface has a
reddish-orange color.
• It is used as a conductor of heat and electricity, a building material,
and a constituent of various metal alloys.
Native copper
Treatment of Copper Ores
• Copper extraction techniques refers to the methods for
obtaining copper from its ores.
• The conversion of copper consists of a series of chemical, physical,
and electrochemical processes. Methods have evolved and vary with
country depending on the ore source, local environmental
regulations, and other factors.
• Concentration
• Froth Floatation
• Hydrometallurgical extraction
• Sulfide ores
• Oxide ores
• Sulfide smelting
• Roasting
• Smelting
• Reverberatory furnace smelting
• Flash furnace smelting
• Converting
• Fire refining
• Electrorefining
Zinc
• Zinc, in commerce also spelter, is a metallic chemical element; it has
the symbol Zn and atomic number 30.
• Zinc is the 24th most abundant element in the Earth's crust and has
five stable isotopes.
• The most common zinc ore is sphalerite (zinc blende), a zinc sulfide
mineral. The largest mineable amounts are found in Australia, Asia,
and the United States.
• Zinc production includes froth flotation of the ore, roasting, and final
extraction using electricity (electrowinning).
Aluminum
• Aluminium is a chemical element in the boron group with symbol Al
and atomic number 13.
• It is a silvery white, soft, ductile metal.
• Aluminium is the third most abundant element (after oxygen and
silicon), and the most abundant metal, in the Earth's crust.
• Aluminium metal is so chemically reactive that native specimens are
rare and limited to extreme reducing environments.
• The chief ore of aluminium is bauxite.
• Aluminium is remarkable for the metal's low density and for its ability
to resist corrosion due to the phenomenon of passivation.
• Structural components made from aluminium and its alloys are vital
to the aerospace industry and are important in other areas of
transportation and structural materials.
• The most useful compounds of aluminium, at least on a weight basis,
are the oxides and sulfates
Tin
• Tin is a chemical element with symbol Sn (for Latin: stannum) and
atomic number 50.
• Tin is the 49th most abundant element and has, with 10 stable
isotopes, the largest number of stable isotopes in the periodic table.
• Tin is obtained chiefly from the mineral cassiterite, where it occurs as
tin dioxide, SnO2.
• This silvery, malleable other metal is not easily oxidized in air and is
used to coat other metals to prevent corrosion.
Lead
• Lead is a chemical element in the carbon group with symbol Pb (from
Latin: plumbum) and atomic number 82.
• Lead is a soft and malleable metal, which is regarded as a heavy metal
and an other metal.
• Metallic lead has a bluish-white color after being freshly cut, but it
soon tarnishes to a dull grayish color when exposed to air.
• Lead has a shiny chrome-silver luster when it is melted into a liquid.
• It is also the heaviest non-radioactive element.
• Lead is used in building construction, lead-acid batteries, bullets and
shot, weights, as part of solders, pewters, fusible alloys, and as a
radiation shield.
• Lead has the highest atomic number of all of the stable elements,
although the next higher element, bismuth, has a half-life that is so
long (over one billion times the estimated age of the universe) that it
can be considered stable.
Titanium
• Titanium is a chemical element with the symbol Ti and atomic number
22.
• It is a lustrous transition metal with a silver color, low density and high
strength.
• It is highly resistant to corrosion in sea water, aqua regia and chlorine.
• Titanium can be alloyed with iron, aluminium, vanadium, and
molybdenum, among other elements, to produce strong, lightweight
alloys for aerospace (jet engines, missiles, and spacecraft), military,
industrial process (chemicals and petro-chemicals, desalination
plants, pulp, and paper), automotive, agri-food, medical prostheses,
orthopedic implants, dental and endodontic instruments and files,
dental implants, sporting goods, jewelry, mobile phones, and other
applications.
Copper-Zinc Alloys
• Brass is an alloy made of copper and zinc; the proportions of zinc and
copper can be varied to create a range of brasses with varying
properties.
Copper-Tin Alloys
• Bronze, alloy traditionally composed of copper and tin. Bronze is of
exceptional historical interest and still finds wide applications.
• The proportions of copper and tin varied widely (from 67 to 95
percent copper in surviving artifacts), but, by the Middle Ages in
Europe, certain proportions were known to yield specific properties.
• An alloy described in an 11th-century Greek manuscript in the library
of St. Mark’s, Venice, cites a proportion of one pound copper to two
ounces of tin (8 to 1), approximately that used for bronze gunmetal in
later times. Some modern bronzes contain no tin at all, substituting
other metals such as aluminum, manganese, and even zinc.
• Bronze is harder than copper as a result of alloying that metal with tin
or other metals. Bronze is also more fusible (i.e., more readily melted)
and is hence easier to cast. It is also harder than pure iron and far
more resistant to corrosion. The substitution of iron for bronze in
tools and weapons from about 1000 BC was the result of iron’s
abundance compared to copper and tin rather than any inherent
advantages of iron.
• Bell metal, characterized by its sonorous quality when struck, is a
bronze with a high tin content of 20–25 percent. Statuary bronze,
with a tin content of less than 10 percent and an admixture of zinc
and lead, is technically a brass. Bronze is improved in hardness and
strength by the addition of a small amount of phosphorus; phosphor
bronze may contain 1 or 2 percent phosphorus in the ingot and a
mere trace after casting, but its strength is nonetheless enhanced for
such applications as pump plungers, valves, and bushings.
• Also useful in mechanical engineering are manganese bronzes, in
which there may be little or no tin but considerable amounts of zinc
and up to 4.5 percent manganese. Aluminum bronzes, containing up
to 16 percent aluminum and small amounts of other metals such as
iron or nickel, are especially strong and corrosion-resistant; they are
cast or wrought into pipe fittings, pumps, gears, ship propellers, and
turbine blades.
• Besides its traditional use in weapons and tools, bronze has also been
widely used in coinage; most “copper” coins are actually bronze,
typically with about 4 percent tin and 1 percent zinc.
Copper-Nickel Alloys
• Cupronickel or copper-nickel is an alloy of copper that
contains nickel and strengthening elements, such
as iron and manganese. Cupronickel is highly resistant to corrosion in
seawater, because its electrode potential is adjusted to be neutral
with regard to seawater. Because of this, it is used for piping, heat
exchangers and condensers in seawater systems, as well as marine
hardware, and sometimes for the propellers, crankshafts and hulls of
premium tugboats, fishing boats and other working boats.
• A more familiar common use is in silver-coloured modern
circulation coins. A typical mix is 75% copper, 25% nickel, and a trace
amount of manganese. In the past, true silver coins
were debased with cupronickel. Despite high copper content,
cupronickel is silver in colour.
• Thermocouples and resistors whose resistance is stable across
changes in temperature contain the 55% copper-45% nickel
alloy constantan.
• Monel metal is a nickel-copper alloy, containing a minimum of 63%
nickel.
Copper-Silicon Alloys
• Silicon is soluble in copper up to 4 per cent at room temperature
Copper-Silicon Alloys