BASIC CONCEPTS IN

IMMUNOLOGY
KEYWORDS
• . Immunology
• . Immunity
• . Innate Immunity
• . Acquired/Adaptive Immunity
• . Antigen
• . Immunogen
• . Immunoglobulin/Antibody
• . Phagocytosis
• . Inflammatory Response/Inflammation
• . Cytokines
• . Leukocytes (white blood cells)
• . Lymphocytes (B and T)
• . Natural killers cells (NK-cells)
Immunology – Definition of Terms

• Immunology - The study of the mechanisms the body uses to

defend itself against invading microbes.
• Immunity – “immunis” – “free from burden”. General ability of a
host to resist a particular infection or disease.
• The immune system - Cells in our bone marrow, thymus, and the
lymphatic system of ducts and nodes, spleen and blood that
function to protect us.
• Innate immunity - Protection that is always present. Includes
phagocytic (cells that eat other cells) macrophages and dendritic
cells, physical barriers, chemical mediators
• Adaptive immunity - Protection that arises by an immune
response, including humoral immunity producing antibodies and
cellular immunity.
• Immunogen (Immunity generator) – A molecule capable of eliciting an
immune response
• Antigen - A molecule capable of interacting with specific components of the
immune system
• Anything causing an immune response, usually foreign material.
• Hapten - These are small molecules which could never induce an immune
response when administered by themselves but which can when coupled to a
carrier molecule. They are non-immunogenic but can react with the products
of a specific immune response. Haptens have the property of antigenicity but
not immunogenicity.
• Epitope or Antigenic Determinant sites - That portion or region of an
antigen that combines with the products of a specific immune response.
• Immunoglobulin/Antibody - A glycoprotein produced in response to an
antigen; regardless of specificity. An antibody is a glycoprotein that is
specific for the antigen and binds to it via non-covalent interactions. The
term "immunoglobulin" is often used interchangeably with "antibody". The
term "antibody“ is used to describe an antigen-specific "immunoglobulin".
Immunoglobulins (Igs) come in different forms (IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, IgM)
that reflect their structures.
• Pathogen - Any disease causing organism.
• Tolerance - Non-reactivity of the immune system, usually refers
to "self" but may include foreign tissue in organ transplants.
• Autoimmunity - A failure of tolerance, the immune system reacts
to self.
• Chemokines - Molecules released by pathogens and infected
tissues to attract cells of the immune system.
• Cytokines - Signaling molecules released by one cell to cause a
response in another. Signaling is extremely important in our
immune response.
 Organs and Tissues of the Immune System

• Function - Immune system is organized into:

• Central/primary lymphoid organs (CLO) – where lymphocytes
are generated. The CLO consists of thymus and bone marrow
where T cells and B cells undergo maturation.
• Peripheral/secondary lymphoid organs and tissues - where
adaptive immune response is initiated and lymphocytes are
maintained. The peripheral lymphoid organs are designed to trap
antigen, allow initiation of adaptive immune response and
sustain re-circulating lymphocytes. Consists of gut associated
lymphoid tissue (GALT - tonsils, adenoids and appendix, Peyer’s
patches); BALT (Bronchial Associated Lymphoid Tissue);
MALT (Mucosal Associated Lymphoid Tissue) and SALT (Skin
Associated Lymphoid Tissue).
•
 Immunity
Defensive mechanisms include :

1) Innate immunity (Natural or Non specific)

2) Acquired immunity (Adaptive or Specific)

Cell-mediated immunity Humoral immunity

 Component of Innate Immunity
Innate Immune system

First line Second line

1) Mechanical barriers A. Cells
2) Chemical and biochemical inhibitors 1- Natural killer
3) Normal flora bb 2- Phagocytes

B. Soluble factors
C. Inflammatory barriers
 Immunity
Innate immunity Adaptive immunity

Humoral Cell-mediated

Components Components
Macrophages antigen presenting cells
Granulocytes T-cells
Natural killer cells B-cells
Complement Antibodies
Chemicals: HCL, lysozyme Complement
• Physical barrier
Characteristics Characteristics
* Action is immediate * Action requires days to develop
* Response is non-specific * Response is specific
* Response is not enhanced on * Response is enhanced on
repeated exposure to pathogen repeated exposure to pathogen
 First line
1) Mechanical barriers
- Intact skin
- Mucous coat
- Mucous secretion
- Blinking reflex and tears
- The hair at the nares
- Coughing and sneezing
reflex
3) Normal bacterial flora
2) Chemical & biochemical
inhibitors
- Sweat and sebaceous
secretion
- Hydrolytic enzymes in saliva
- HCl of the stomach
- Proteolytic enzyme in small
intestine
- Lysozyme in tears
- Acidic pH in the adult
vagina
- Competition for essential
nutrients
- Production of inhibitory
substances
 The response of the innate immune system
It is divided into two stages:

1. Non-inflammatory reaction (body’s static defenses)

skin, gastric pH, lysozyme in tears, saliva, mucous.

2. Local inflammation promotes migration of phagocytes

and plasma protein into infected tissues.

The phagocytes respond to surface structures present

in large groups of microorganisms (peptidogycan, mannose).
 Acquired (specific) immunity
• The acquired immune response is more specialized than
innate immune response.

* The acquired immune response involves a combination

of two mechanisms:

1) Humoral immune response

2) Cell mediated immune response

* Both responses interact with one another to destroy foreign

body (microorganisms, infected cells, tumor cells).
 Acquired Or Adaptive Immunity

I- Passive Acquired Immunity

a-Natural
Antibodies are passed through placenta to the fetus
b- Artificial
The injection of already prepared antibodies, such as gamma
globulin (short-term immunization).

II. Active Acquired Immunity

Natural
- Following clinical or subclinical infections like measles or
mumps, in which immunity is long lasting
b. Artificial
- Following vaccination with live or killed infectious agents or
their products
 Characteristics Of Acquired Immune Response

• The fundamental properties of acquired immunity are:

1. Specificity - Acquired immunity is induced by the presence of

foreign material and is highly specific for the invading organism.

2. Discrimination between “self” and “non self” molecules –

Immune response only occurs to “non self” molecules.

3. Memory (anamnesis) – Ability to elicit a heightened and quicker

response when re-exposed to the same antigen or pathogen.

4. Diversity/Adaptiveness - It can respond to millions of different

antigens.
Humoral and Cellular immunity
Humoral and Cellular immunity
Differences between Humoral and Cellular
Immunity
HUMORAL IMMUNE RESPONSE CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNE RESPONSE
It is mediated by B-cells. It is mediated by T-cells.
Formation of antibodies. No formation of antibodies.
Antibodies are made used to identify Receptors are made used to identify
antigens. antigens.
It protects majorly against extracellular
viruses and bacteria.
Immunoglobulin
• Each antibody consists of four polypeptides– two heavy chains
and two light chains (alpha, delta, gamma, epsilon or mu);
joined to form a "Y" shaped molecule. They are produced by
B-lymphocytes
- These have the ability to recognize and bind specifically to
antigen that induced their formation

• Two identical Heavy and Light chains

• Both heavy and light chains have Variable and Constant
regions
• Variable regions of H and L chains combine to form antigen
binding site
A. B.

Basic Immunoglobulin structure

• Immunity mediated by antibodies is called humoral (Humor:
body fluids) immunity
• There are 5 different classes of antibodies with different
functions
• Different classes (isotypes) are found in different
compartments of the body
• Stem of the “Y” determines the class and function of the
antibody
• Antibodies protect by neutralization, opsonization or
complement activation
Types of Immunoglobulin
• IgG: trans-placental, secondary response
• IgA: breast milk, mucosal membranes
• IgM: Primary response
• IgE: Allergic reactions, secondary response
• IgD: typically attached to B-cells aiding in their
activation
Antigen, Epitope and Paratope
• Primary Response:
• Slow in Onset
• Low in Magnitude
• Short Lived
• IgM

• Secondary Response:
• Rapid in Onset
• High in Magnitude
• Long Lived
• IgG (Or IgA, or IgE)

Primary And Secondary Response

Primary And Secondary Response
Antibodies produced by B-cells of the immune system recognize
foreign antigens and mark them for destruction
Autoimmune Diseases
• Autoimmune disease occurs when the immune system attacks
self-molecules as a result of a breakdown of immunologic
tolerance to autoreactive immune cells. Many autoimmune
disorders have been strongly associated with genetic, infectious,
and/or environmental predisposing factors.

• Egs. Organ-specific and systemic, autoimmune diseases -

insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, rheumatoid arthritis,
systemic lupus erythematosus, scleroderma, thyroiditis,
multiple sclerosis. Etc.
Vaccine
• A preparation of a weakened (attenuated) or killed
pathogen, such as a bacterium or virus or of antigenic
proteins derived from them, administered for
prevention, amelioration, or treatment of infectious
diseases.

Immunization
• Inoculation (deliberate introduction) of foreign
materials into a host to stimulate protective immunity
Study Questions
a. Which one of the following statements is correct regarding the innate immune
system?

1. It is specific
2. It evokes a more potent response on secondary exposure
3. It represents the first line of defense
4. It is able to memorize pathogens on subsequent exposures
5. None of the above

b. The difference between innate and adaptive immune response is mainly in the:
1. Ability to fight bacterial infections.
2. Ability to fight viral infections.
3. Memory of the response.
4. Number of cells involved.
5. Speed of the response.
c . Which of the following mechanisms or agents is an effective chemical barrier
against infection?
1. High pH of the skin
2. Low pH of vagina
3. Cilia of the respiratory tract
4. Lysozyme of the intestinal tract
5. Urine flow

d. Which one of the following is not part of the innate immune system?
1. Mast cells
2. Complement
3. Phagocytes
4. T cells