CHAPTER 2

TRANSFORMERS
 What is a transformer

A transformer is a static device that changes ac electric power at one voltage level to ac
electric power at another voltage level through the action of a magnetic field
 Transformer parts

Primary
coil Secondary coil

Ferromagnetic core
 Principle of operation
1. If the primary winding is connected to an alternating-voltage source, an
alternating flux will be produced around the primary coil.
2. The flux is carried in the low-permeability core
3. The mutual flux will link the other winding,(the secondary coil) and will induce
a voltage in it
Transformer construction
The ideal transformer

Where a is the turns ratio of

the transformer
Schematic symbols
 Power in an ideal transformer

 The power supplied to the transformer by the primary circuit

 The power supplied by the transformer secondary circuit to its loads

 The primary and secondary windings of an ideal transformer have the same power factor
 Impedance transformation
The impedance of a device or an element is defined as the ratio of the phasor voltage across it to the phasor current flowing
through it
The apparent impedance of the primary
circuit is given by:

We know that:

Therefore the apparent impedance of the

primary:
 Analysis of circuits containing ideal
transformers
 Example
A single-phase power system consists of a 48O-V 60-Hz generator supplying a load 𝑍𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑=4+ 𝑗3Ω through a
transmission line of impedance 𝑍𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒=0.18+𝑗0.24Ω. Answer the following questions about this system.
If the power system is exactly as described in the figure below, what will the voltage at the load be? What will the
transmission line losses be?
𝐼𝐺=𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒=𝐼𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑.
 Suppose a I: 10 step-up transformer is placed at the generator end of the transmission line and a 10: I step-down
transformer is placed at the load end of the line. What will the load voltage be now? What will the transmission
line losses be now?
 Step 1:
Eliminate transformer T2 by referring the load over to the transmission line's voltage level.

The value of the load's impedance when reflected to the transmission system's voltage is:

The total impedance at the transmission line level is now :

This equivalent circuit is shown below

The total impedance at the transmission line level ( 𝑍𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒+ 𝑍′ 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑) is now reflected across 𝑇1 to the source's voltage level:

=
Notice that 𝑍′′𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑=4+𝑗3Ω and 𝑍′𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒=0.018+𝑗0.0024Ω.The resulting equivalent circuit is shown below
 The generator’s current is:

Knowing the current we can now work back and find and .Working back through 𝑇1 we get

Working back through 𝑇2 gives

 It is now possible to answer the questions originally asked. The load voltage is given by

and the line losses are given by

COMPARE TRANSMISSION LOSSES AS WELL AS VOLTAGE AT THE LOAD FOR THE SYSTEM WITH AND
WITHOUT TRANSFORMER.
 Complex numbers recap
1. Convert polar form to rectangular form
xθ =x+jx
a)9
=9+j9
=8.46-3.08j
b)
0.67=0.67+j0.67
=0.67+0.03j
 Complex numbers recap
 Convert to polar form

a) 0.09-0.16j
=
=0.18
b)-3.24-1.2j
=
3.4620.32
 Complex numbers recap
1.
=-3.275(22.5-(-33.4)
=3.28
2. =0
V=253.2
Practical Transformers
• where λ is the flux linkage in the coil across which the voltage is being induced.
• The flux linkage λ is the sum of the flux passing through each turn in the coil added over all the turns of the coil:

the flux passing through each turn of a coil is slightly different from the flux in the other turns therefore we define average flux

Solved(for the average flux

in the primary)……
 Magnetisation current
 When an ac power source is connected to a transformer, a current flows in its primary circuit, even when the
secondary circuit is open circuited.
 This current is the current required to produce flux in a real ferromagnetic core, as explained in Chapter I. It
consists of two components:
1. The magnetization current , which is the current required to produce the flux in the transformer core
2. The core-loss current which is the current required to make up for hysteresis and eddy current losses.
The transformer equivalent circuit
Equivalent circuit(referred to primary)

Therefore

Therefore

Therefore
 Further simplified

Excitation branch moved to front of transformer Excitation branch eliminated

Equivalent circuit(referred to the secondary
 Further simplified

Excitation branch moved to the front Excitation branch neglected

Example
Solution

==16.67
Referred to high voltage side (primary)
EC referred to HV side
 Determining the Values of Components in the
Transformer Model
 Two main practical tests :
1. Open-circuit test
2. Short-circuit test
 Open-circuit test

• The secondary winding is open circuited

• Primary winding is connected to a full-rated line voltage
• Essentially all the input voltage is dropped across the excitation branch
 The open circuit test enables the calculation of Rc and 𝑋𝑀.
 Conductance of the core- loss resistor
 Susceptance of the magnetizing inductor
 Equivalent impedance :

 Admittance of the two elements 𝑌𝐸 =

=𝐺𝐶 − 𝑗𝐵𝑀
 Magnitude of admittance(referred to primary) =
 Open-circuit power factor
 The power-factor angle
 Open-circuit test
 The power factor is always lagging for a real transformer therefore
 Short-circuit test

• The primary terminals are connected to a fairly low voltage source.

• Input voltage is adjusted until the current in the short-circuited windings equals its rated value
• Primary voltage should be kept at a safe level to avoid burning out the secondary windings
 Input voltage is so low during the short-circuit test therefore negligible current flows through the excitation
branch,
 All the voltage drop in the transformer can be attributed to the series elements in the circuit
 Magnitude of the series impedances referred to the primary side ;

 The power factor of the current

 Therefore

We know that
 Example
The equivalent circuit impedances of a 20-kVA, 8000V/240- V, 6O-Hz transformer are to be determined. The open-
circuit test and the short-circuit test were performed on the primary side of the transformer, and the following data
were taken:

Find the impedances of the approximate equivalent circuit referred to the primary side, and sketch that circuit.
Equivalent circuit
 Transformer Voltage regulation
 The output voltage of a transformer varies with the load even if the input voltage remains constant.

at no load, Vs = Vp /a,

• Usually it is a good practice to have as small a voltage regulation as possible.

Equivalent circuit(referred to secondary with excitation branch neglected)
Transformer operating at lagging PF

therefore VR is positive
Transformer operating at unity PF

therefore VR is positive but less than the lagging PF

Transformer operating at leading PF

therefore VR is negative
 Transformer Efficiency

Three types of losses present in transformers:

1. Copper (𝐼2𝑅) losses. These losses are accounted for by the series resistance in the equivalent
circuit.
2. Hysteresis losses. These losses and are accounted for by resistor Rc.
3. Eddy current losses. These losses are accounted for by resistor Rc.
 Solution
 Open-circuit calculations
 Short-circuit calculations:
Equivalent circuit referred to HV side
 Equivalent circuit referred to LV side
therefore every impedance from the previous circuit is divided by
Phasor diagram(at 0.8 lagging PF)
Phasor diagram (at unity PF)
Phasor diagram(at 0.8 leading PF)
Find the equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to
a) the primary side
b) The secondary side
 -


 therefore
 therefore
 Original values of :
 Short-circuit test calculations

 referred to the secondary: