MAP PROJECTIONS
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES
S.No CLO PLO
1
Demonstrate advanced survey concepts for
1 (Engineering
application to civil engineering.
Knowledge)
MAP PROJECTIONS
PROJECTIONS
DEFINITION:
Maps are flat, but the surfaces they represent are curved.
Transforming, three-dimensional space (GLOBE) onto a two
dimensional map is called Projection system.
OR
A projection is defined as any systematic arrangement of
meridians of longitude and parallels of latitude, which portray the
curved surface of the sphere or ellipsoid upon a plane. Projections
are required.
a. To construct a map graticule.
b. To construct a grid system.
c. To display topographic information in the best possible way.
d. To aid navigation
MAP PROJECTION
Flat Map
Cartesian coordinates: x,y
(Easting & Northing)
Curved Earth
Geographic coordinates: ,
(Latitude & Longitude)
HOW MAP PROJECTIONS ARE MADE
• A map projection is a mathematical model for conversion of locations from a
three-dimensional earth surface to a two-dimensional map representation.
This conversion necessarily distorts some aspect of the earth's surface, such
as area, shape, distance, or direction.
• Every projection has its own set of advantages and disadvantages.
There is no "best" projection. Some distortions of conformality (shape),
scale, distance, direction, and area always result from this processes.
Some projections minimize distortions in some of these properties at
the expense of maximizing errors in others. Some projection are
attempts to only moderately distort all of these properties
• The mapmaker must select the one best suited to the needs, reducing
distortion of the most important features.
• Mapmakers and mathematicians have devised almost limitless ways
to project the image of the globe onto a flat surface (paper).
Movie_0001.wmv
QUALITIES REQUIRED OF A
PROJECTION
a. Maintenance of Scale
b. Preservation of Area
c. Preservation of Shape (Conformality)
d. Accuracy of bearing
TYPES OF PROJECTIONS
CYLINDRICAL
PROJECTIONS
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Gerard's Mercator
developed cylindrical
map projections 1569
CYLINDRICAL PROJECTIONS
Normal - equatorial / East-West
Transverse - North-South regions
Oblique - other angles
VISUALIZE A LIGHT SHINING THROUGH
THE EARTH ONTO A SURFACE
MERCATOR PROJECTIONS
SECANT
POSTURE
In this example the
cylindrical surface used
for the map “cuts” the
globe at the map’s
representative fraction.
Along this line there is
distortion free mapping
of the geographic
space.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CYLINDRICAL
PROJECTIONS
• Best for equatorial or low latitudes
• Rotate cylinder to reduce distortion along a line (transverse
• Suitable for navigation because they give true bearings.
• The parallels and meridians are straight lines crossing at
right angles.
• All bearings are true bearings.
• Scale factor increases away from the standard parallel or
meridian. Thus distances and areas are exaggerated.
UTM INTRODUCTION
• The UTM was developed by United
States Army Corps of Engineers in
1940.
• The system was based on the
ellipsoid model of earth.
• During war, European countries used
grid based conformal maps to
calculate the distances. After the
war, the idea was extended to UTM
and UPS coordinates system.
• The transverse Mercator is a variant of the Mercator projection
which was developed by the Gerardus Mercator in 1569.
UTM ZONE
• The central meridian divides a zone into Eastern and
Western halves.
• Each zone tapers from 666,000 m at the equator to 70,000 m
at the North Pole and 116,000 m at the South Pole.
SECANT POSTURE
• In UTM the secant posture of the cylinder is being used due
to the fact that the secant cylinder intersects the earth surface
at two arcs so at those arcs the scale factor is 1.000000
• As in the secant posture there are two standard meridians so
we have the map accurate between the region between those
meridians and the zone in the vicinity of the meridians so we
can calculate and project the map of the earth more
accurately and precisely
19
NAMING OF ZONES AND SUB-ZONES
• The zones are numbered from 1 to 60, from 180o W and up
to 180o E.
• Each subzone of the UTM grid is named using the letters
of the English Alphabet. Subzones are named from “C” to
”X”.
• The letters “C” to “M” are used in the southern
hemisphere and the letters “N” to “X” are used in the
northern hemisphere. (“I” & ”O” not used).
UTM ZONE COORDINATE SYSTEM
How to find Northing ?
CONICAL PROJECTIONS
CONIC PROJECTIONS
(ALBERS, LAMBERT)
CONICAL PROJECTION
PARALLELS
CONCENTRIC
CIRCULAR
ARCS
MERIDIANS
RADIATING
STRAIGHT
LINES
TANGENT CONE
SECANT CONE
PROJECTION CLASSIFICATION
Conical Distortion
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONICAL
PROJECTIONS
1. In the conic projections , except Polyconic
2. The parallels are the concentric circles
a. And meridians are the straight lines.
b. Scale factor increases away from the standard
parallels.
3. In the polyconic projections :
a. Only the central meridian is the straight line
b. Parallels are not concentric circles.
c. Meridians are complex curves .
POLY-CONIC
1. A single cone of a conical projection can cover only a small area.
However, for coverage of greater areas a number of cones are used.
2. The number of cones depends upon the area coverage required.
Therefore, the poly conic projection is based on an infinite number
of cones tangent to an infinite number of parallels.
3. The central meridian is straight.
4. Other meridians are complex curves.
5. The parallels are non-concentric circles.
6. Scale is true along each parallel and along the central meridian.
POLY-CONIC
POLY-CONIC
PLANAR OR AZIMUTHAL
PROJECTIONS
TYPES
CLASSIFICATION
CHARACTERISTICS OF AZIMUTHAL
PROJECTIONS
• Lines of latitude and longitude are intersecting at 90 degrees
• Meridians are straight lines
• Parallels are concentric circles
• Forms a circular map
• Scale near the center is true
• Can have the properties of equidistance, conformity or equal
area
• The pole is represented as a point
• Directions from the central point to any other point on the map
are accurate
UNIVERSAL POLAR STEREOGRAPHIC
COORDINATE SYSTEM (UPS)
• The universal polar stereographic (UPS) coordinate system is used in
conjunction with the universal transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinate
system to locate positions on the surface of the earth.
• Like the UTM coordinate system, the UPS coordinate system uses a
metric-based Cartesian grid laid out on a conformally projected surface.
• UPS covers the Earth's polar regions, specifically the areas north of 84°N
and south of 80°S, which are not covered by the UTM grids, plus an
additional 30 minutes of latitude extending into UTM grid to provide
some overlap between the two systems.
GLOBAL MAPPING COVERAGE BY
COMBINING UTM AND UPS
PROJECTIONS/GRIDS
CONVENTIONAL OR NATURAL
individual or unique projections – can not be easily related to
one of the three developable geometric forms
Goode’s Projection
ROBINSON PROJECTION --
A COMPROMISE PROJECTION
SANSON-FLAMSTEED
HAMMER
SCALE FACTOR
The amount by which the ratio of a distance on the projection to
the corresponding distance on the ellipsoid deviates from 1:1 is
described as the scale factor:-
Scale factor = Length on Projection
Length on Ellipsoid
SCALE FACTOR VARIATION
S.F.(P)
S.F.(P)
1.0004
1.0004 1.0
1.0
0.9996
1.0004
1.0
1.0004
THANK YOU
